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CALIFORNIA* STATE  -SERIES 


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LEMENTARY 


EOGRAPHY 


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UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 

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CALIFORNIA      STATE      SERIES      OR      SCHLOOIv     TEXT-BOOKS. 


ELEMENTARY 


GEOGRAPHY. 


-*^:2-^  ^ 


COIVLPILKD      UNDKR      THE      DIRECTION 
OF    THE 

STATK    BOARD    OK    KDUCATION 


SACRAMENTO,    CALIFORNIA. 

Printed  at  the  State  Printing  Office. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENT. 

//1 3^7-^ 


The  State  Board  of  Education  desire  to  acknowledge  the  kind  assistance  of  many  prominent 
teachers  of  the  state  in  the  preparation  of  this  book.  For  careful  reading  of  the  proof  issued  in  pam- 
phlet form  for  revision,  and  for  valuable  suggestions  that  have  been  incorporated  in  the  finished  work, 
thanks  are  especially  due  to  Prof.  A.  E.  Kellogg,  of  the  Boys  High  School,  San  Francisco;  Prof  J. 
B.  McChesney,  Principal  of  the  Oakland  High  School;  Mrs.  ly.  P.  Wilson,  Principal  of  the  Training 
Department  of  the  State  Normal  School  at  San  Jose;  Miss  Emily  Rice,  teacher  in  the  State  Normal 
School  at  Chico;  Mrs.  J.  N.  Hughes,  teacher  in  the  State  Normal  School  at  San  Jose;  Mrs.  Julia  B. 
Hoitt,  Deputy  Superintendent  of  Public  Instruction;  Hon.  Job  Wood,  County  Superintendent  of 
Schools,  Monterey  County;  James  T.  Stockdale,  Principal  of  Public  Schools,  Monterey;  and  A. 
Norton,  teacher,  Gonzales. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress  in  the  year  i8go, 
By  Robert  W.  Waterman,  Ira  G.Jfoitt,  Charles  IV.  Childs,  Ira  More,  and  Edward  T.  Pierce, 

STATE  BOARD  OP  EDUCATION 

Of  the  state  of  California,  for  tlu  People  of  the  State  of  California. 


PREFACE. 


Geography  memorized,  as  words,  is  perhaps  the  least  interesting  and  least 
profitable  of  all  school  studies.  Geography  so  taught  that  its  facts  become  pictures 
is  the  most  engaging  and  attractive  of  all. 

The  right  study  of  Geography  involves  much  exercise  of  the  imagination,  and 
its  facts,  beyond  those  of  simple  observation,  can  properly  be  presented  only  by 
calling  in  the  agency  of  this  faculty.  No  aim  in  the  teaching  of  Geography  can  be 
true  that  does  not  recognize  this. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  it  has  been  the  constant  effort  so  to  present 
the  text,  question,  and  illustration  as  to  engage  this  most  powerful  function  of  the 
mind.  How  far  the  effort  has  been  successful  only  use  can  determine,  and  at  best 
it  can  be  but  partially  so  without  the  intelligent  and  enthusiastic  cooperation  of  the 
teacher.     The  book  can  do  little  more  than  point  the  way. 

When  the  pupil  enters  upon  the  study  of  Geography  two  new  exercises  pre- 
sent themselves,  namely:  the  apprehending  of  land  and  water  forms  and  the  read- 
ing of  maps,  which  are  pictures  of  these  forms. 

That  the  pupil  may  become  able  to  grasp  the  ideas  presented  in  the  terms 
slope,  hill,  mountain,  plain,  valley,  plateau,  lake,  river,  ocean,  continent,  etc.,  he  has 
been  asked  first  to  see  the  geographical  forms  that  are  in  his  immediate  vicinity — 
to  see,  for  instance,  the  hill,  the  valley,  the  upland  field,  the  pond,  the  brook — and, 
second^  to  imagine  the  forms  that  these  suggest — the  mountain,  mountain  chain, 
broad  plain,  plateau,  lake,  river,  ocean,  etc. — and  in  this  way  reach  an  apprehension 
of  the  land  and  water  forms  of  the  earth.  By  observing  the  form  of  the  ball  or 
the  orange  he  is  led  to  imagine  the  earth  as  a  globe. 

That  he  may  be  able  correctly  to  interpret  the  map  much  exercise  is  given  in 
elementary  map  reading,  not  only  to  make  him  familiar  with  the  signs  employed 
to  represent  rivers,  mountains,  coast  lines,  cities,  etc.,  but  also  to  enable  him  to 
tell  what  these  indicate  in  slope,  climate,  productions,  fertility,  and  occupations. 

The  teacher  should  supplement  the  descriptive  matter  of  the  book  by  explana- 
tion, question,  and  story.  To  aid  in  this  numerous  references  are  given  in  connec- 
tion with  the  text.  These  references  have,  to  a  great  extent,  been  furnished  by 
teachers  of  the  State,  and  are  made,  largely,  to  books  already  in  the  district  libraries. 
Care  has  been  taken  to  avoid  reference  to  expensive  books,  in  order  that  the  vol- 
umes recommended  may  be  available  for  all  district  libraries. 

2- 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGE. 

Ideas  of  Direction 5 

Ideas  of  Distance — Scale 6 

Elementary  Map  Reading,  involving  Direction  and 

Distance  (School  Room) 8 

Ideas  of  Surface  Forms 9 

Elementary  Map  Reading,  involving  Surface  Forms 

(School  Grounds) i6 

Studies  on  County  Map i6 

Studies  on  State  Map i6 

The  Earth  as  a  Whole 17 

Heat 21 

Moisture 22 

Climate 23 

Zones — Vegetation — Animals 24 

Occupations 26 

Review  Questions 27 

Elementary  Map  Reading — State  of  California     .     .  28 


PAGE. 

The  Hemispheres 30-31 

Races  and  Conditions  of  Men 32 

Governments 33 

North  America 34 

United  States 46 

Review  Questions 62 

State  of  California 62 

British  America 88 

Mexico  and  Central  America 92 

South  America 95 

Europe 104 

Asia 115 

Africa 122 

Oceania 127 

List  of  Books  for  Supplementary  Reading  ....  130 

Pronunciations 131 

Standard  Distances — Populations 132 


METHODS   OF  AWAKENING   INTEREST 


Very  successful  common  school  teachers  have 
contributed  the  following  plans,  adopted  by  them, 
to  awaken  interest  in  the  study  of  Geography: 

I.  Setting  apart,  Friday  afternoon,  an  hour  or 
half  hour,  which  may  be  called  The  Reading 
Hour,  during  which  teacher  or  pupils  (preferably 
pupils)  read  extracts  from  books,  magazines,  or 
papers  that  relate  to  the  subject  studied  in  the 
Geography  during  the  preceding  week. 


2.  Placing  upon  the  blackboard  each  morning 
a  single  question  for  the  investigation  of  the 
pupil  during  leisure  hours,  such  as  ' '  What  plants 
are  used  to  make  clothing, "  etc.  A  valuable  col- 
lection of  such  questions  may  be  found  in  Frye's 
"Child  and  Nature,"  pages  82  to  116. 

3.  Asking  pupils  to  bring  in  some  object,  as  a 
piece  of  bread,  leather,  cotton  cloth,  tin,  etc. ,  and 
give  its  history,  where  produced,  and  how. 


^'^^  OP  THB    ^' 

lUFIVEESITr! 

ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


I.  IDEAS  OF   DIRECTION. 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(i)  Where  does  the  Sun  rise? 

L,et  pupils  stand  with  right  hand  to  the  East. 

In  this  position  teach  direction  of  the  face;  of 
the  back;  of  the  left  hand. 

Pupil  point  to  the  North;  to  the  South;  to  the 
West;  to  the  East. 

Face  North;  South;  East;  West. 

Take  one  step  North;  one  step  East;  one  step 
vSouth;  one  step  West. 

WRITTTErsI    EXERCISE. 

Pupils  read  and  fill  out  the  following  skeleton 
with  the  proper  words,  orally,  then  copy  and  fill 
out  in  writing: 

' '  When  we  stand  with  the hand  to  the  East 

our  faces  will  be  to  the ,  our will 

be  to  the  — — ,  and  our will  be  to  the -." 

[PrEWMINary  Orai,  Course. — ^The  preliminary  oral 
course  and  the  oral  work  throughout  the  volume  consti- 
tute an  essential  part  of  this  book.  The  results  sought 
in  the  preparation  of  the  Elementary  Geography  depend 
so  largely  upon  a  thoughtful  and  conscientious  attention 
to  the  oral  divisions,  that  their  neglect  will,  in  a  consid- 
erable measure,  defeat  the  objects  aimed  at.  It  is  there- 
fore earnestly  recommended  that  the  teacher  give  his 
best  efforts  to  the  successful  presentation  of  this  depart- 
ment.    The  pleasure  of  the  pupil  in  studying  and  of  the 


teacher  in  teaching,  will  depend  much  upon  this.  Do 
not  pass  too  hastily  from  one  step  to  another.  Let  each 
be  so  thoroughly  mastered  as  to  become,  so  far  as  possi- 
ble, a  part  of  the  habitual  thought  of  the  child.  The 
minimum  of  telling  and  the  maximum  of  judicious 
questioning  should  mark  this  work.  (Read  Parker's 
"How  to  Study  Geography,"  page  loi.)] 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(i)  Teach  semi-cardinal  points  as  above. 

WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Let  pupils  fill  out  the  following  skeleton  as 
before: 

' '  Northeast  is  half  way  between and , 

Northwest  is between and , 

Southwest  is  between and , 

Southeast  is between and ." 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(3)  Teach  direction  of  the  sides  of  the  house; 
of  the  ends;  of  cracks  in  the  floor;  of  the  door 
from  teacher's  desk;  of  the  stove  from  the  desk; 
of  shadows  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  at  sunset. 

WRITTEN     EXERCISE. 

Fill  out  the  folloiving  skeleton  orally  and  in 
writing,  as  before: 

' '  The  sides  of  the  house  extend and , 

the  ends  extend and .     The  cracks  in 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


the  floor  extend and ,     The  door  is 

from  the  teacher's  desk  and  the  stove  is .     In 

the  morning  the  shadows  fall ,  at  noon  they 

fall ,  and  in  the  evening ." 

ORA.Iv     EXERCISE. 

(4)  Show  compass^  when  possible  to  do  so. 
Explain  it.  Show  why  it  is  a  better  guide  to 
direction  than  the  sun. 

Teach  direction  of  various  objects  in  the  school 
room  from  one  another;  of  objects  near  the  school 
house  as,  the  nearest  hill,  the  nearest  tree,  the 
nearest  house;  direction  in  coming  to  school;  in 
going  home. 

Direction  of  north  wind;  south  wind;  east 
wind;  west  wind. 

A?VRITXEN    EXERCISE. 

Fill  out  the  fol- 
lowing skel'eton 
orally,  and  then 
in  writing: 

'  'A  compass  is  a 
better  guide  than 
the   sun,    because 

"A  north  wind 

blows   from  the  and   toward   the ,  an 

east  wind  blows  from  the  and  toward  the 

,  a  west  wind  blows  from  the and  to- 
ward the ,  a  south  wind  blows  from  the 

and  toward  the ." 


II.  IDEAS  OF  DISTANCE. 

[Let  each  pupil  be  provided  with  a  foot  rule  divided 
into  inches,  half  inches,  quarter  inches,  and  eighth 
inches.     If  this  is  impracticable,  let  each  pupil  make  a 

1  Reading  Hour:  World  at  Home,  vol.  I,  p.  58,  Les.  25,  The  Com- 
pass; p.  52,  I<es.  23,  The  Weather  Cock. 


rule  of  pasteboard,  or  strong  brown  paper,   from   the 
measure  stamped  on  the  cover  of  the  Geography.] 

ORAL    EXERCISES. 

(i)  Using  the  ruler,  draw  a  line  a  foot  long  on 
the  blackboard.     Let  each  pupil  do  the  same. 

Erase  and  let  each  pupil  draw  a  line  that  he 
judges  to  be  a  foot  long.     Measure  each. 

Draw  again;  measure. 

Repeat  a  number  of  times. 

(2)  I<et  pupils  each  draw  a  line  an  inch  long. 
Erase. 


Let  pupils  draw  lines  judged  to  be  an  inch  long. 
Measure. 

Teach  that  1 2  of  these  lines  make  a  foot. 
Let  pupils  draw  12  such  lines. 
Measure  and  see  if  they  make  a  foot. 
Repeat  a  number  of  times. 

(3)  Pupils  draw  3  lines  each  judged  a  foot  long. 
Measure. 

Teach  that  3  such  lines  make  a  yard. 

Draw  3  lines  each  judged  a  yard.     Measure. 

Judge  the  length  of  the  school  room  in  feet. 
Measure. 

Judge  the  width.     Measure. 

Judge  the  length  of  desks,  blackboard,  and  other 
objects.     Measure. 

(4)  Let  each  pupil  take  one  natural  step. 
Measure  the  step. 

Let  pupils  judge  the  length  of  the  school  lot. 

Let  each  measure  it  by  stepping. 

Do  the  same  with  the  width. 

Let  both  length  and  width  be  measured  by  tape 
line.  If  you  have  no  tape  line  take  a  string  or 
make  a  yard  stick  from  a  piece  of  lath. 

(5)  Name  the  distance  to  your  own  home. 
The  direction  and  distance  of  the  nearest  post- 
office;  the  nearest  church;  the  nearest  creek. 


IDEAS  OF  DISTANCE. 


How  many  yards  wide  is  the  nearest  road? 
Measure. 

If  the  moon  is  just  rising  as  the  sun  is  setting 
what  is  the  direction  of  a  straight  line  joining 
them? 

If  a  river  runs  S.E.  and  a  railroad  runs  squarely 
across  it,  in  what  direction  does  the  railroad  run  ? 

A  ship  sails  north  and  is  struck  squarely  on  the 
left  by  a  steamer  and  sunk;  in  what  direction  is 
the  steamer  going  ? 

(6)  Distance  represented  by  arbitrary  length — 
Scale}  If  a  well  is  20  feet  deep  can  I  draw, 
downward  on  the  blackboard,  a  line  as  long  as  the 
well  is  deep?     Why? 

If  I  draw  a  line  20  inches  long,  to  stand  for  the 
well,  how  much  will  i  inch  stand  for  ? 

The  teacher's  table  is  4  feet  long;  if  I  draw  a 
picture  of  it  only  4  inches  long  what  will  stand  for 
I  foot? 

If  I  inch  stands  for  i  foot  and  the  side  of  the 
house  is  40  feet  long,  how  long  a  line  must  I  draw 
to  represent  the  side  of  the  house? 

Introduce  numerous  examples,  like  the  forego- 
ing, of  scale  I  inch  to  the  foot. 


Let  pupils  see  how  many  they  can  make. 

WRITTEN    EXKRCISE. 

Let  each  pupil  write  an  original  example  of  a 
scale  I  inch  to  the  foot. 

ORAIv    EXKRCISKS. 

(7)  Scale  I  inch  to  the  mile.  Suppose  i  inch 
to  stand  for  a  mile  how  much  will  two  lines,  each 
an  inch  long  (draw  them  on  the  board),  stand  for? 
Draw  an  inch  line.  Suppose  that  is  the  distance 
to  the  nearest  house — how  far  is  it  ? 

Add  an  inch.  That  is  the  distance  to  the 
nearest  church — how  far? 

Add  3  inches.  That  is  the  distance  to  the 
nearest  town — how  far? 

The  distance  to  the  seashore  is  7  miles.  How 
many  inches  shall  represent  it  ? 

The  distance  to  the  nearest  stream  is  3^  miles. 
How  long  a  line  must  we  draw  for  that  ? 

Continue  exercises  like  the  preceding. 

(8)  Let  each  pupil  draw  a  line  6  inches  long; 
call  each  inch  2  miles;  measure  the  distances  and 
mark  them,  as  on  line  below: 


Vil. 

"T" 


Ch. 


Mountain.  Flume.    Village. 


Brook.        Orchard. 


Let  pupils  determine  distances  from  home  to 
tree,  to  church,  from  church  to  village,  to  orchard. 

See  that  they  measure  the  line  for  themselveg 
in  each  case.  Get  from  them,  in  the  same  way, 
a  dozen  or  more  of  the  distances  represented  on 
the  line. 

WRITTEN     EXERCISE. 

Pupils  copy  the  following  skeleton  story  and  fill 
the  blanks  with  the  appropriate  distances.  In 
doing  this  ascertain  the  distances  by  measuring 

1  Reading  Hour:    World  at  Home,  vol.  I,  p.  68,  L,es.  29,  The  Master's 
Portrait. 


the  line  above,  and  not  the  road  as  seen  in  the 
picture. 

One  sunny    Saturday    morning    my    brother 
Charles  and  I  mounted  our  ponies  at  home  for  a 

trip  to  the  great  mountain, miles  distant. 

miles  out  we  stopped  at  an  orchard  and  filled 

our  pockets  with  apples  which  the  owner  kindly 

gave  us,  and miles  further  on  sat  down  upon 

the  steps  of  a  church  to  eat  them.  We  then 
climbed  upon  our  ponies  again,  when,  without 
our  saying  a  word,  the  spirited  little  animals  set 
off  on  a  lope,  never  stopping  to  walk  until  they 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


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reached  the  top  of  a  distant  hill miles  away. 

Here  we  stopped  to  let  them  breathe  while  we 
looked  around  us.  Just  below  lay  a  pretty  village 
which  we  guessed  to  be  about  a  mile  off,  but 
which  we  were  told,  when  we  reached  it,   was 

as  far.     Here  we  ate  our  lunch  and  fed  our 

ponies  and  counted  up  the  distance  we  had  come. 
We  were  surprised  to  find  that  we  had  passed 
over miles  of  our  journey,  while  the  mount- 
ain, though  still miles  away,  seemed  to  be 

almost  at  our  feet. further  on   we 

stopped  to  look  at  a  new  timber  flume.  When 
we  reached  the  mountain  we  tied  our  ponies  in 
the  bushes  and  wandered  about  until  we  saw  that 
the  sun  was  getting  low.  Hastening  to  our 
ponies  we  sprang  into  the  saddles  and  were  off  on 
a  run.     We  flew  through  the  village  and  galloped 

on  to  the  hill.      ' ' miles  gone  and to 

go,"  shouted  Charles,  while  the  ponies  still  kept 
up  their  speed.     We  drew  up  a  few  minutes  at 

the  church,  however,  which  we  called  the 

way  house,  because  it  was miles  from  the 

mountain  and miles  from  home.     Once  more 

we  were  ofi",  and  miles  further  we  rattled 

across  the  bridge  over  the  brook,  saying  to  each 

other,  ' '  Only miles  more  ! "     At  8  o'clock  we 

trotted  through  the  bam  yard  gate.  Our  ponies 
had  traveled  the  entire  distance  of miles  with- 
out seeming  a  bit  fatigued,  though  Charles  and  I 
were  glad  to  get  to  bed  as  quickly  after  supper  as 
we  could. 


ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(9)  When  the  foregoing  work  is  done  easily  let 
a  line  be  divided  into  inch  spaces  each  represent- 
ing 3  miles. 

Mark  it  and  question  on  it  as  before. 

Then  into  inch  spaces  each  line  representing  4, 
6,  or  8  miles,  and  question. 

[Before  passing  from  this,  see  that  the  pupil  is 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  meaning  of  "scale"  and 
its  application  to  the  measurement  of  lines.  In  this 
book,  extent  of  country  in  lengths  and  breadths,  wherever 
practicable,  is  taught  by  requiring  the  pupil  to  measure 
the  map  and  apply  the  scale,  and  is  not  stated  in  the  text.  ] 


III.    ELEMENTARY  MAP  READING. 

(i)  Direction  and  Distance  on  a  Map. 
Draw  diagram  like  the  following.  Use  the 
north  board. 

Teach  that  the  top  is  north;  bot- 
tom, south;  right  hand,  east;  left 
hand,  west.  They  have  already 
learned  names  of  points  between 
these. 

Form  many  questions,  as:  Direction  of  5  from 
I,  I  from  9,  9  from  5,  4  from  i,  i  from  7,  4  from 
8,  6  from  2;  direction  of  boundary  lines,  etc. 
Let  pupils  form  questions. 

(2)  Map  of  School  Room.^  (a)  Let  pupils 
measure  side  of  school  room.     Teacher  write  on 


1  Reading  Hour:    IVorld  at  Home,  vol. 
Plan  of  School  Room. 


p.  27,  Les.  II,  Drawing 


ELEMENTARY  MAP  READING. 


the  board  the  number  of  feet.     Measure  end  of 
the  room — write  number  of  feet  on  the  board. 

(b)  Have  pupils  draw  line  on  slates  or  paper  for 
the  side  of  the  room,  drawing  i  inch  in  length  for 
every  4  feet.  (If  the  side  is  24  feet  long  how  many 
inches  in  the  line?  If  30?  If  27?)  Draw  line 
for  the  end  in  the  same  way;  draw  line  for  the 
other  side,  the  other  end. 

(c)  Have  pupils  measure  the  space  from  one 
corner  of  room  along  the  side  to  the  first  window, 
write  distance  on  the  board;  measure  the  window, 
write  distance  on  the  board;  measure  next  space 
along  the  wall  and  record  it  as  before  till  all 
spaces  and  windows  and  doors  are  measured  and 
the  measures  written  on  the  board. 

(d)  Have  pupils  then  measure  the  proper  dis- 
tance on  the  lines  of  their  map  and  draw  double 
lines  for  the  walls,  leaving  single  lines  of  the 
right  length  for  windows  and  doors. 

(e)  By  similar  measurements  get  position  of 
teacher's  desk,  chair,  and  waste  basket,  of  stove, 
of  the  two  outside  rows  of  desks,  and  draw  them 
in  the  manner  shown  below.  Enlarge  the  scale 
four  times  and  draw  map  on  the  board.  Ask 
questions  of  the  class  on  the  large  map,  as: 

Direction  of  stove  from  the  door,  from  the 
teacher's  desk,  etc. 

Let  pupils  ask  similar  questions. 

Have  pupils  measure  from  corner  to  comer  on 
the  map,  diagonally,  and  tell  the  real  distance. 
On  the  map  measure  from  teacher's  desk  to  door, 
tell  the  real  distance;  make  other  measurements 
in  same  way. 

Have  pupils  reproduce  the  map  they  have  made 
till  they  can  do  it  readily  and  understand  all  its 
points. 

If  impracticable  to  produce  an  original  map, 
question  pupils  on  the  following  map  and  let  them 
copy  it. 

Questions    on    Map    of   School  Room.— 

Which  way  does  this  school  house  front?     On 


o 


IH^  00  0o  Qo  00  0 
[Tjo  [7]o  00  0o  00  0> 
0o  0o  0o  00  0o  01 
0o  0o  0o  00  0o  0( 


^  of  an  inch  =  i  foot. 

which  side  of  the  school  room  is  the  bookcase? 
How  long  is  it  ?  How  far  from  the  west  wall  ? 
From  the  east  wall  ?  In  what  part  of  the  room 
is  the  teacher's  desk  ?  How  far  does  it  stand  out 
from  the  wall?  In  what  direction  is  desk  24 
from  desk  i  ?  How  far  is  the  southeast  corner  of 
desk  I  from  the  northwest  corner  of  desk  24? 
Which  corners  of  desk  4  and  desk  21  are  nearest 
each  other? 


IV.  IDEAS  OF  SURFACE   FORMS. 

[In  giving  elementary  ideas  of  surface  forms,  a  relief 
globe  or  relief  wall  maps^  will  be  found  of  the  greatest 
assistance.  The  teacher  need  not  be  discouraged,  how- 
ever, by  their  absence.  What  was  said  to  the  famous 
archer  will  then  be  true  of  him:  "Thy  skill  will  be  the 
greater  if  thou  hits' t  it,"  and  the  simple  devices  of  an 
ingenious  teacher,  inspired  by  contact  with  his  pupils, 
are  often  the  very  best  illustrations  possible.  Have 
pupils  illustrate  their  ideas  of  every  surface  form  by  a 
drawing,  no  matter  how  crude,  upon  the  blackboard. 
However  inartistic  the  result,  the  effort  will  be  helpful. 
Ask  pupils  each  day  to  bring  pictures  of  the  things 
taught  in  the  following  exercises.  In  most  cases  a 
large  collection  of  excellent  illustrations  will  soon  be 
made.] 

ORAL    EXERCISES. 

(i)  Slopes.'  Are  the  tops  of  the  school  desks 
level  ? 

What  can  we  say  of  them  in  respect  to  this  ? 

1  See  Gypsal  Relief  Maps,  Bay  State  Publishing  Company,  Hyde 
Park,  Mass. 

2  See  Frye'S  Geography  with  Sand  Modeling,  pp.  52,  53,  54. 


/^^   OP  THE 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


Where  have  you  seen  a  slope  of  land  ? 

How  many  slopes  can  you  count  in  the  school 
yard? 

Is  there  more  than  one  slope  on  the  desk  top  ? 

Open  your  Geography  and  turn  it,  cover  up,  on 
the  desk,  like  this: 


How  many  slopes  now  on  the  desk  top  ? 

By  what  is  the  longest  of  these  slopes  made  ? 

How  are  the  shorter  ones  made  ? 

Are  the  slopes  all  in  the  same  direction  ? 

Does  all  the  rain  that  falls  sink  into  the  ground  ? 

Where  does  it  go?     Why? 

How  does  the  rain  get  into  pools  ? 

Can  land  slope  in  two  directions  at  once  ? 

Look  at  all  the  slopes  that  lie  in  your  way  to 
and  from  school  and  see  if  you  find  any  lying  in 
more  than  one  direction. 

See  if  you  can  stand  your  Geography  on  the 
desk  in  such  a  way  that  one  side  of  the  cover  will 
slope  in  more  than  one  direction  at  the  same  time. 

Look  for  large  slopes  of  land  having  smaller 
slopes  within  them. 

Represent,^  on  a  modeling  board,  some  slope 
that  you  can  see. 

Note  that,  in  Geography,  a  slope  is  always  a  descent. 

(2)  A  Hill.  If  a  hill  is  within  sight  call  atten- 
tion of  pupils  to  it. 

If  no  hill  is  to  be  seen  from  the  school  house 
have  each  pupil  tell  where  he  has  seen  one. 

Is  the  hill  higher  or  lower  than  the  land  around 
it? 

1  See  Frye's  Geography  with  Sand  Modeling^  p.  29,  last  paragraph. 


Lead  the  pupil  to  observe  (a)  the  base,  (b)  the 
top,  (c)  the  slope. 

Call  attention  first  to  the  part  then  to  the  name. 

By  questions,  if  possible,  lead  pupils  to  define 
for  themselves  the  hill  as  a  mass  of  land  higher 
than  the  surrounding  country. 

Have  pupils  represent,  on  a  modeling  board, 
some  hill  that  they  can  see. 

'WRITTEN     EXERCISE. 

Read  the  following  skeleton,  fillmg  blanks 
orally  with  the  necessary  words,  then  in  writing: 

'  'A  hill  is -.     Its  parts  are  the ,  the 

,  and  the .     The  base  of  a  hill  is  the 

and  the  slope  is  the .     There  is  a  hill  about 

Distance,  from  the  school  house  in  a direc- 
tion, and  another  about in  a direction." 

ORAL    EXERCISES. 

(3)  A  Mountain.  Observe  a  mountain,  if  one 
is  in  sight. 

Have  the  pupil  mention  any  mountain  he  has 
seen  and  tell  about  it. 

Where  no  mountain  is  in  sight,  let  pupil  ob- 
serve a  hill  and  lead  him  to  imagine  a  mountain. 

Make  diagram  of   hill  and  mountain  on  the 
board  to  illustrate  compara- 
tive size. 


Note. — in  the  absence  of  a  complete  outfit  of  tables 
and  modeling  boards  an  oblong  pie  tin  may  be  made 
to  serve.  Putty,  dough,  clay,  or  sand  may  be  used. 
Where  the  school  grounds  are  suitable,  the  representation 
of  surface  forms  may  be  made  in  the  earth  of  the  school 
yard  by  the  use  of  spade,  trowel,  or  knife.  When,  later 
on,  it  becomes  desirable  to  model  school  grounds,  county, 
state,  or  continent,  ist,  mark  the  boundaries;  2d,  build 
up  the  mountains  in  their  proper  places,  shape  the  slopes 
and  valleys,  scratch  lines  for  rivers,  scoop  out  hollows 
for  lakes,  and  cut  out  places  for  gulfs  and  bays.  When 
the  material  has  hardened,  water  may  be  poured  in  to 
complete  the  illustration. 


IDEAS  OF  SURFACE  FORMS. 


Have  pupils  represent,  on  the  modeling  board, 
some  mountain  that  they  can  see,  if  any  is  in 
sight. 

See  picture  of  volcano,  p.  15.  What  is  a  vol- 
cano ? 

(4)  A  Mountain  Range.  Where  practicable 
have  pupils  observe  a  mountain  range.  Illustrate 
by  diagram,  as  follows: 


Lead  the  pupil  by  questions  and  observations  to 
tell  what  it  is  himself. 

Have  pupils  represent,  on  a  modeling  board, 
some  mountain  range  that  they  can  see.  If  none 
is  in  sight,  build  a  range  of  mountains  as  the 
diagram  suggests. 

Teach  what  a  Mountain  System  consists  of. 

W^RITTEN     EXERCISE. 

Write  this  skeleton  on  the  board,  pupils  fill 
blanks  orally,  then  copy.  Each  blank  may  be 
filled  by  any  number  of  words  necessary: 

"A  mountain  is  of  land  hill.     A 

range   of  mountains  is  of  mountains.     A 

mountain  system  is  of  mountain  ranges. 

A  volcano  is ." 

ORAIv     EXERCISE. 

(5)  A  Lake.^  Find  a  pond,  where  possible, 
and  lead  the  class  to  describe  it:  (a)  water,  fresh 
or  salt;  (b)  land  on  all  sides. 

When  this  is  done,  step  by  step,  have  pupils 
write  the  description. 

If  no  pond  is  accessible,  let  a  place  be  scooped 
in  the  yard  and  pour  in  water. 

3  See  Frye's  Geography  with  Sand  Modeling,  p.  55. 


Cut  a  channel  from  it  to  teach  outlet. 

Let  the  pupil  imagine  the  pond  to  be  enlarged, 
first,  to  reach  some  distant  point  in  sight  and, 
then,  to  reach  as  far  in  all  directions  as  he  can 
see,  and  in  this  way  perceive  what  a  lake  is. 

Ask  pupils  to  bring  into  the  class  all  the  pict- 
ures of  lakes  they  can  find. 


Diagram  of  Pond  and  Lake. 

Let  them  make  a  shallow  depression  in  the 
mountains  they  have  modeled  and  sprinkle  it 
with  white  sand  or  ashes  for  a  lake. 

Have  them  represent,  on  the  modeling  board, 
some  pond  or  pool  that  they  have  seen. 

WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  and  complete  the  following;  then  mem- 
orize: 

A  lake  is  a  ^"^-  body  of ,  usually .     It 

is by  land. 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(6)  A  River. ^  If  a  stream  is  within  sight  or 
can  be  seen  by  walking  a  short  distance,  have  the 
pupil  observe  for  himself: 

(a)  The  direction  of  its  flow. 

(b)  The  direction  from  which  it  flows. 

(c)  How  the  stream  flows — straight  or  winding. 

(d)  The  edge  of  the  river,  or  land  that  borders  it. 

(e)  Teach  the  term  "shore,"  or  "bank." 

(f)  Show  "right  bank,"  "left  bank,"  "bed." 

1  See  Frye's  Geography  with  Sand  Modeling,  pp.  56,  57,  58. 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


(g)  Teach  meaning  of  "source." 
(h)  Meaning  of  "mouth." 
Lead  the  pupil,  by  questions,  to  describe  all 
these  for  himself. 

If  the  stream  is  a  brook,  get  the  idea  of  a 
river    by  imagining   the  brook   to   be   several 
times   as   wide  as  it  is  and  having  other 
streams  flowing  into  it. 

If  a  real  stream  is  inaccessible,  teach 
from  the  picture  on  this  page,  having  the 
pupil  observe  all  the  above. 

Have  pupils  represent,  on  the  modeling 
board,  some  running  stream  that  they  can 
see,  if  there  is  one. 


WRITTETsr     EXERCISE. 

Skeleton  for  pupil  to  fill  out  orally  and  copy. 
Fill  each  blank  with  as  many  words  as  are  neces- 
sary: 

A  river  is  a   ^''^-   winding of ,  

the  land.     Its  source  is ,  its  mouth  is . 

The  shore,   or  bank,  is ,  the  right  bank  is 

,  the  left  bank  is .     The  bed  is . 


For  Reading: 

(7)  You  can  see  that  the  river  bed  must  be  a 
slope  or  the  water  would  not  run.  When  the 
slope  of  the  bed  is  steep  the  water  runs  very 
swiftly,  making  the  surface  of  the  river  rough, 
and  this  swift  and  rough  flowing  of  the  river  is 
called  Rapids. 


IDEAS  OF  SURFACE  FORMS. 


13 


Sometimes,  also,  the  bed  of  the  river  drops 
suddenly  downward  like  the  side  of  a  house,  and 
the  water  plunges  straight  down  over  the  edge, 
and  is  then  called  a  Waterfall  or  Cataract. 

Where  the  land  along  the  river  is  very  low  it 
often  happens  that  when  the  water  rises  the  land 
is  overflowed.  To  prevent  this  a  ridge  of  stones, 
earth,  and  timber  is  built  along  the  shore  to  keep 
the  water  in  the  bed  of  the  river.  This  ridge  is 
called  a  Levee  (lev'ee)  or  Dyke.  When  the  water 
breaks  through  the  levee,  as  it  does  sometimes, 
the  break  is  called  a  Crevasse  (ere  vSsse'). 

(8)  Questions  on  the  Picture  of  the  River. 
Point  out  the  source  of  the  river.  The  mouth. 
Right  bank.  Left  bank.  The  rapids.  The  cat- 
aract. The  levee.  The  crevasse.  On  which 
bank  of  the  river  is  the  village  ?  What  name  do 
you  give  to  the  water  of  the  river  just  below  the 
cataract  ?  Would  you  think  the  land  on  the  right 
side  of  the  river  below  the  rapids  high  or  low  ? 
Why  ?  Would  you  think  the  land  above  the  cat- 
aract high  or  low  ?  Below  the  rapids  what  name 
is  given  to  the  ridge  of  land  along  the  right  bank 
of  the  river?  What  is  the  opening  made  through 
it  by  the  water  called  ? 

WRITTEM    EXERCISE. 

Whefi  the  pupil  has  carefully  studied  the  pre- 
ceding questions  and  answered  them  let  him  copy 
and  fill  out  the  following  letter: 

Dear  Cousin  Emma: 

I  send  you  with  this  letter  a  picture 

of  the  village  where  we  live,    and  of  the  

that  runs  by  it,  and  of  all  the  country  from  the 

of  the  river  in  the  to  its at  the 

sea.     You  will  see   that   our  village  stands  on 

the  bank  of  the  ,  a  little  above  the 

,    and   that   the   land   on'  which    it    stands 

slopes  in directions,  one  towards  the of 

the and  the  other  towards  its .     Above 


the  village  you  will  see  that  the  land  on  both  the 

bank  and bank  slopes  somewhat 

towards  the  stream.      Below  the the  water 

runs  ver}^  swiftly  for  a  little  distance,  and,  after 

we  pass  below  the ,  the  land  on  the is 

level  and  very  low,  so  that  the  water  of  the 

will  often  overflow  it.     To  prevent  this  a is 

built  of  to  keep  the  water   in   its   . 

Sometimes   it   happens   that    the   water   breaks 

through  this ,  and  the  opening  it  makes  is 

called  a  .     The  picture  shows  such  a 

and  a  number  of  houses  partly  under  water.     As 

3'ou  see,  our  village  is  on land  and  in  no 

danger. 

Your  afiectionate  cousin, 

Mary. 

ORA.Iv     EXERCISE. 

(9)  A  Valley.^  If  within  sight  of  one,  lead 
the  pupil  by  question  and  conversation  to  observe: 

(a)  Position  of  valley,  as  (l)  the  land  between 
two  hills;  (2)  the  land  along  both  sides  of  a  river. 

(b)  Upper  part  of  river  valley  (toward  the  head- 
waters). 

(c)  Lower  part  (toward  the  mouth). 

(d)  Slopes  (l)  in  the  direction  the  river  runs; 
(2)  slope  toward  the  left  bank;  (3)  slope  toward 
right  bank. 

Let  pupils  turn  to  the  picture  of  a  river  and 
point  out  the  upper  part  of  the  valley,  the  lower 
part,  and  slopes. 

Explain  and  show  that  the  large  land-slopes  are 
not  regular  in  descent,  but  are  usually  broken  by 
elevations,  making  many  slopes  within  slopes,  and 
that  therefore  there  will  be  many  slopes  in  various 
directions  within  the  three  main  slopes  of  a  valley. 

A?VRI'rTEN     EXERCISE. 

Skeleton  for  pupil  to  fill  out  orally;  then  copy: 
A  valley  is hills,  or a  river;  the  upper 

1  See  Frye's  Geography  with  Sand  Modeling,  pp.  58,  59,  60. 


14 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


part  of  a  river  valley  is  the  land ,  and  the 

lower  part  is  the  land .     The  long  slope  of  a 

river  valley  is  the  slope  from to ,  and 

the  short  slopes  are  the  slopes banks. 

(id)  a  River  System.^  If  at  or  near  the  junc- 
tion of  two  rivers,  let  the  pupil  observe  that  one 
flows  into  the  other. 

Teach  that  a  river  with  a  number  of  rivers 
jiowing  into  it  makes  a  River  System. 

Have  class  draw  the  river  system  here  outlined: 


v^r 

£ 

ifiHtfd 

Jj^to 

*i 

^**u 

^£^\_ 

k\ 

^-^ 

^/^-^ 

3i  ^  ^" 

— -^"l 

j 

lyi 

If 

^ 

^mWh 

Tr'  utary 

S 

^ 

^ 

-  J 

Teach  that  a  river  Jiowing  into  another  is  called 
a  Tributary. 

(i  I )  By  questions,  lead  pupils  to  see  that  all  the 
land  from  which  the  water,  of  a  river  system  is 
received  is  the  River  Basin.  Teach  them  to  dis- 
criminate clearly  between  a  river  system  and  a 
river  basin.  Draw  from  them  an  oral  statement 
of  the  diflference.  Have  them  write  the  differ- 
ence, then  put  on  the  board  the  best  statement 
of  the  difference  given. 

(12)  A  P1.AIN.  By  actual  observation  show 
that  it  is  (a)  a  level,  or  nearly  level,  tract  of  land. 
Where  possible  show  also,  by  observation,  that  it 
may  be  (b)  lowland,  (c)  upland,  (d)  high  plain,  or 
plateau  (pla  to').  Illustrate  on  the  blackboard  by 
outline  like  the  following: 

1  See  Frye's  Geography  with  Sand  Modeling,  pp.  61,  62,  63. 


Lowland. 


Upland. 


Questions. — Where  have  you  seen  a  lowland 
plain  ?  An  upland  plain  ?  Have  you  ever  seen  a 
plateau?     If  so,  tell  where,  and  describe  it. 

(13)  An  Island.  If  in  sight,  let  class  observ^e 
it.  By  questions,  lead  pupils  to  describe  it.  Let 
each  one  tell  where  he  has  seen  an  island.  Have 
him  make  an  island  out  of  sand  or  clay,  on  the 
modeling  board.  Look  for  an  island  in  the  picture. 
Contrast  and  compare  an  island  with  a  lake. 
Write  upon  the  board  the  definition  and  have  it 
learned. 

(14)  A  Peninsula.  If  within  a  short  distance 
the  proper  projection  of  land  can  be  found,  go 
with  the  class  and  look  at  it.  Question  them 
until  from  some  of  them  all  the  characteristics  of 
a  peninsula  are  told.  Afterward  write  on  the 
board  the  best  description  given  and  have  them 
copy  it.  If  there  is  no  better  way  at  command 
let  them  look  at  the  picture,  p.  15,  and  describe 
the  projection  there.  If  there  are  streams  or 
bodies  of  water  in  the  neighborhood,  ask  pupils 
to  find  all  the  peninsulas  they  can  on  the  road  to 
school  and  in  the  vicinity.  Inquire  for  several 
days  what  they  have  found;  stimulate  emulation 
in  this,  also  in  the  discovery  of  the  four  follow- 
ing divisions. 

(15)  A  Cape.  Teach  the  child  to  recognize  a 
cape  as  you  teach  a  peninsula — by  observation  of 
a  real  cape  or  from  the  picture. 

(16)  A  Gulf.  Wherever  a  peninsula  can  be 
seen  a  gulf  is  almost  always  found.  Teach, 
through  observation,  and  lead,  by  questions,  the 
child  to  describe  it  after  seeing  it  or  a  picture 
of  it. 


ELEMENTARY  MAP  READING. 


15 


If 


(17)  Isthmus  (is'mus) — 
Strait.  Pursue  the  same 
method  as  in  teaching  a  gulf. 
Compare  an  isthmus  with  a 
strait. 

In  what  are  they  alike? 

In  what  do  they  differ? 

(18)  Questions  on  the 
Picture.  Make  a  list  of  all 
the  forms  of  land  and  water  rep- 
resented in  this  picture.  What 
form  is  represented  in  the  lower 
right  hand  comer?  {Ans.  A 
Promontory.')  What  is  a  prom- 
ontoiy?  (^Ans.  A  high  Cape.) 
How  many  peninsulas  can  you 
find  in  the  picture?  How 
many  slopes  ?     How  many  hills  ? 

ow  many  straits? 


V.   ELEMENTARY   MAP   READING. 


Map  of  School  Grounds.^  Procure  a  tape 
line  or  a  string  of  convenient  length  and  let 
pupils  measure  the  school  grounds.  If  the 
grounds  are  not  laid  with  marked  boundary  lines, 
measure  any  convenient  distance  from  the  cen- 
ter of  each  side  of  the  school  house  and  set  a 
stake. 

Afterward  adopt  some  convenient  scale,  as  20 
ft.,  40  ft.,  or  60  ft.  to  the  inch,  and  draw  a  bound- 
ary line  of  the  grounds.  In  the  center  draw  an 
outline  to  represent  the  school  house.  Measure 
distances  of  several  objects  (well,  gate,  coal  or 
wood  shed)  from  the  school  house;  write  them 
down  and  also  note  the  direction.  Draw  outlines 
of  these  in  the  proper  places. 

Note  direction  of  other  objects  (a  tree,  stone, 
hill).  Measure  distances  as  before  and  mark  the 
position  of  the  objects  on  the  map. 

1  Reading  Hour:  World  at  Home,    vol.  I,  p.  33,  Les.  14,   Drawing 
Plan  of  School  Grounds. 


Question  on  distances  and  direction  of  various 
objects  from  one  another.     Repeat  the  drawing. 

WRITTElsr     EXERCISE. 

Have  pupils  write  a  description  of  their 
school  house  and  grounds  on  the  plan  below. 
Assist  them  in  getting  necessary  information: 

(a)  Kind  of  ground  it  stands  on — hill; 
slope,  direction  of;  plain;  valley. 

(b)  Faces  which  way. 

(c)  Size — number  of  rooms,  closets,  etc. 

(d)  Materials  op  which  made — brick  or 
stone,  where  procured,  how;  wood,  different 
kinds,  where  found,  how  prepared. 

(e)  Surroundings— pleasant  or  not,  and  why; 
trees  or  stones  in  the  yard,  etc. 

(f )  Kind  of  wood  in  pupils'  desks,  in  teacher's 
desk;  where  obtained. 

(g)  Walls — tinted,  papered,  clean,  soiled,  etc. 


i6 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


Road  Fence 


ROAD 

Road  Fence 


Scale  ! 


Map  of  School  Grounds. 


hill  and  the  puddle?  Between  the 
hill  and  the  river?  How  many 
slopes  are  shown  between  the 
creek  and  the  river?  How  are 
they  shown?  Is  the  line  that  sep- 
arates these  slopes  on  high  ground 
or  low  ground?  What  is  such  a 
line  called?  {Ans.  A  Watershed.') 
Tell  the  difference  between  the  two 
slopes  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river  and  the  two  slopes  between 
the  creek  and  the  river.  Which 
of  the  following  pair  of  slopes 


represents  the  slopes  on  the  oppo- 
site side  of  the  river?  Should 
you  think  this  school  house  stands 
on  level  ground  or  on  a  slope? 
If  on  a  slope,  what  is  its  general 
direction?  Find  eight  slopes 
shown  on  this  map. 


VI.  STUDY  OF  COUNTY. 

[These  questions  may  be  ex- 
tended to  suit  the  requirements 
of  the  course  of  study  or  the  views 
of  the  teacher.  ] 


If  impracticable  to  measure  grounds  let  ques- 
tions on  the  accompanying  map  be  answered  by  the 
class  with  the  book  open,  and  let  the  map  be  copied. 

Questions  on  the  Map. — Which  way  does  the  school 
house  face?  How  far  from  the  door  to  the  front  fence? 
To  the  gates?  In  what  direction  is  the  right  gate  from 
the  school  house?  How  wide  is  the  road?  How  many 
feet  of  ground  on  the  south  side  of  the  road  are  included 
in  the  map?  How  far  from  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
house  to  the  center  of  the  puddle?  How  far  from  the 
northwest  corner  to  the  tree?  From  the  tree  to  the  rock? 
In  what  direction  does  the  land  slope  between  the  school 
house  and  the  puddle?    How  do  you  tell?    Between  the 


Name  of  county.  How  bounded. 
Name  streams.  Give  direction 
of  flow.  Name  mountains,  hills, 
ponds  or  lakes,  valleys,  forests, 
and  give  direction  from  school 
house;  distance.  L,ocality  of  best 
farming  lands — on  hills  or  plains 
or  in  valleys?  Products.  Mills  and  factories— direc- 
tion and  distance  from  school  house.  Name  of  county 
seat— direction  and  distance  from  school  house.  Trace 
with  a  pointer  the  road  by  which  you  go.  Name 
streams,  if  any  crossed  in  going  to  county  seat.  Mount- 
ains crossed. 


VII.    STUDIES  ON   STATE   MAP. 

Where  is  San  Francisco?  Sacramento?  Direction 
of  county  from  San  F'rancisco.  From  Sacramento. 
By  what  road  would  you  travel  from  your  county  seat  to 
San  Francisco  ?     To  Sacramento  ? 


THE  EARTH  AS  A    WHOLE. 


17 


i 


iiiip 


The  Earth  in  Spack. 


VIII.   THE   EARTH  AS  A  WHOLE. 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(i)  Shape.  Round — Show  a  globe,  an  orange, 
or  a  ball;  teach  that  anything  round  like  an  orange 
is  called  a  g/ode,  a  da/l,  or  a  sphere. 


WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  a  sentence  with  the  word  globe  in  it. 
Another  with  the  word  sphere  in  it. 

Complete  the  following  sentence  and  copy  it; 
then  memorize: 


The  Earth  is 


like  a 


i8 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


oral  exercises. 
(2)  Proof  of  Shape. 
Notice  the  fly  on  the  top 
of  the  ball.  Notice  him 
in  the  nearest  position 
toward,  the  right.  Has 
he  turned  a  comer? 
Does  his  head  point  in 
the  same  direction  as 

at  the  start?     Why? 

In  going  to  the  next  position  has  he  turned  a 

comer?     Is  he  nearer  the  starting  point  than  he 

was  before  ?    Why  ? 

(3)  Men  have  started  to  travel  on  the  earth,  and, 
without  turning  about  and  going  back,  have  come 
again  to  the  starting  place.  From  this  what  should 
you  think  about  the  shape  of  the  earth  ?  In  going 
round  the  world  do  men  walk,  as  in  the  picture  ? 
How  do  they  go  ? 

Enlarge  upon  the  last  question  by  conversation 
with  the  class. 

(4)  A  joint  of  stove  pipe  is  round  in  one  wa5^ 
Could  a  fly  come  back  to  his  starting  place  on  the 
stove  pipe  without  turning  about  ? 

If  the  earth  were  in  the  shape  of  a  joint  of  stove 
pipe,  only  very  large,  as  it  is  now,  could  men  come 
back  to  a  starting  place  without  turning  about? 

When  men  come  back  to  the  place  from  which 
they  started,  without  turning  about,  does  it  prove 
that  the  earth  is  round  like  a  ball  or  globe? 

In  what  shape  might  it  be  ? 

WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  and  complete  the  following  sentence; 
then  memorize: 

' '  The  Earth  cannot  be ,  because  men  have 

traveled  round  it." 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(5)  Suppose  you  were  to  stand  on  an  island  in 


the  ocean  and  were  to  look  east  and  see  the  top  of 
the  mast  come  in  sight,  but  could  not  see  the  ship, 
would  you  think  the  ship  to  be  on  a  level  surface 
or  on  a  curved  surface  ? 

Then  if  you  looked  west  and  saw  a  mast  in  the 
same  way,  then  north,  then  south,  what  would  you 
think  about  the  shape  of  the  earth — would  it  be 
round  like  a  stove  pipe,  or  round  like  a  ball? 
Why? 

^?VRITTEN:     EXERCISE. 

After  thinking  and  talking  about  this,  let  the 
pupil  write  and  complete  the  following  sentence; 
then  memorize: 

"The  Earth  must  be like  a or , 

because  when  we  look  at  a  ship  far  off"  upon  the 

sea,  coming  towards  us  from direction,  we 

see  the first."  ^ 

ORAL    e:*ercise. 

(6)  Size  of  the  Earth,  How  far  do  you 
think  it  is  around  the  Earth  ?  If  you  should  start 
to  travel  around  it  and  should  go  twenty  miles 
every  day  you  would  be  1,250  days  in  getting 
back  to  your  starting  point.     How  far  is  that  ? 

1  Reading  Hour:   World  at  Home,  vol.  II,  pp.  14-18. 


MOTIONS  OF  THE  EARTH. 


19 


Looking  at  Ships  from  an  Island  in  the  Ocean. 


The  distance  around  tlie  earth  is  called  its  Cir- 
cumference. 

The  distance  through  it  is  called  its  Diameter, 
and  is  8,000  miles.  

WRiTrrEiSr   exercise. 
^  Write  the  following,  fill  it  out,  and 
commit  it  to  memory: 

' '  The  distance  around  the  earth  is 

miles,  and  is  called  its .     The  dis- 
tance through  the  center  is miles 

and  is  called  its ." 

Write  a  sentence  with  the  word  cir- 
cumference in  it.  Another  with  the 
word  diameter. 

For  Reading: 

(7)  Motions  of  the  Barth.'^  Think  of  a  top 
spinning  before  a  lamp.  The  earth  spins  or  turns 
in  the  same  way  before  the  sun,  except  that  it 
turns  in  the  air.  This  is  one  of  its  motions,  and 
is  called  the  Rotation  of  the  Earth  on  its  Axis. 
It  is  this  motion  that  gives  us  day  and  night. 
We  go  with  the  earth,  and  when  the  place  we 
are  on  is  toward  the  sun,  we  have  day;  when  it 

1  Reading  Hour:   World  at  Home,  vol.  IT,  pp.  23-25. 

2  Motions  of  the  earth  may  be  omitted  until  later,  if  the  teacher 
finds  it  advisable. 


is  away  from  the  sun,  we  have  night.  It  takes 
the  earth  24  hours  to  turn  completely  round  on 
its  axis.     Stop  and  think  what  24  hours  make. 


\VFiITTE>C     EXERCISE. 

Write  this  sentence  and  complete  it;  then  mem- 
orize: 

"The  earth  turns  round  on  its  axis  once  in 
hours,  making ." 

For  Reading: 

(8)  Now  think  of  a  top  spinning  before  a  lamp 
on  the  edge  of  a  table  shaped  like  the  one  in  the 
picture;  then  think  that  while  it  spins  it  is  also 
moving  around  the  lamp  along  the  edge  of  the 
table.  The  earth  moves  in  the  same  way  around 
the  sun.     This  is  the  other  motion  and  is  called 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


The  Revolution  of  the  Earth  around  the  Sun. 
It  does  not  stop  spinning,  but  it  moves  along  the 
curved  line  at  the  same  time.  While  going  once 
around  the  sun  it  turns  on  its  axis  365  times. 
Now,  stop  and  think  how  many  days  that  means. 

WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  this  sentence  and  complete  it;  then  mem- 
orize: 

* '  While  going  around  the  sun  the  earth  turns 

round  on  its  axis times,  making days, 

which  we  call  one ." 

For  Reading: 

(9)  While  the  earth  is  going  around  the  sun, 
as  the  top  goes  around  the  lamp  in  the  picture,  it 
turns  itself  toward  the  sun  in  such  a  way  that 
most  places  have  very  cold  weather  part  of  the 
year,  then  warmer  weather,  and  then  hot  weather, 
then  cooler  weather,  and  then  very  cold  weather 
again. 

XA^RITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  the  following,  putting  only  one  word 
in  the  place  of  each  set  of  italic  words  above: 

' '  Most  places  have part  of  the  year,  then 

,  and  then  ,  then  ,  and  then  

again." 

For  Reading: 

(10)  Can  we  see  the  whole  earth  from  any 
place  upon  it  ?  Can  we  see  a  great  part  of  it  ? 
How,  then,  can  we  know  how  it  looks.  Men 
have  traveled  over  it  and  made  maps  of  it.  We 
can  see  these  maps,  and  in  that  way  we  can  see 
where  the  long  mountain  systems  are,  the  largest 
and  longest  rivers,  the  great  slopes,  hundreds  of 
miles  long,  and  the  valleys,  so  wide  that  a  boy  on 
his  pony  would  be  weeks  in  crossing  one.  But 
the  maps  do  not  really  show  how  these  things 
look.  You  must  look  at  the  hills  and  small  val- 
leys and  short  slopes  that  you  can  see,  and  try  to 
imagine  them  growing  and  growing,  hundreds  of 


times  as  large  as  they  are,  to  make  the  great 
mountains  and  large  valleys  and  long  slopes  that 
you  can  not  see,  but  which  make  up  the  earth 
and  which  are  pictured  on  the  map. 

(11)  You  can  do  another  thing.  You  pan  im- 
agine yourself  to  be  very  high  above  all  mount- 
ains and  to  be  flying  like  a  bird,  around  the  earth 
and  looking  down  upon  great  bodies  of  land  com- 
posed of  long  slopes  and  great  river  basins  sep- 
arated by  long  ranges  of  mountains,  sometimes 
running  north  and  south  and  sometimes  east  and 
west.  These  great  bodies  of  land  are  called 
Continents.  You  would  be  looking  down  on 
great  bodies  of  water,  also,  much  larger  than  the 
land,  and  these  are  called  Oceans,  and  their 
water  is  salt.  You  would  see  them  washing  the 
shores  on  all  sides. 


For  Recitation: 

Continents  are  great  bodies  of  land  composed 
of  long  slopes  and  great  river  basins,  separated 
by  long  ranges  of  mountains. 

Oceans  are  the  large  bodies  of  salt  water  that 
surround  the  continents. 

(12)  Hemispheres.  If  you  could  go  high 
enough  and  could  see  far  enough  you  might  see 
half  the  earth  at  one  time.  When  the  sun 
shines  upon  it  you  would  find  one  half  looking 
something  like  this: 


HEAT. 


It  is  called  the  western  half-sphere,  or  West- 
ern Hemi-sJ>/iere.  The  large  body  of  land  in  it  is 
called  the  Western  Continent. 

What  do  you  think  heini  means?  Which  way  do  the 
great  mountain  ranges  of  the  Western  Continent  run — 
north  and  south  or  east  and  west?  Is  there  more  water 
or  land  in  this  hemisphere? 

Now  if  you  should  wait  till  the  other  side  of  the 
earth  is  rolled  toward  the  sun  you  would  find  it 
looking  much  like  this: 


I 


This  is  called  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  the 
great  body  of  land  in  it  is  called  the  Eastern 
Continent. 

Which  way  do  the  large  mountain  ranges  of  this  half 
run — north  and  south  or  east  and  west?  Is  there  more 
water  or  land  in  this  hemisphere? 

If  you  would  like  to  know  how  large  part  of 
the  earth's  surface  is  land  and  how  large  part  is 
water,  this  diagram  will  tell  you.  Examine  and 
measure  it,  and  decide  for  yourself: 


I.and. 

Water, 

Now  that  you  have  measured  it,  what  do  you 
decide? 


IX.   HEAT. 
For  Reading:^ 

If  you  were  to  be  asked  where  all  the  heat  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  comes  from,  you  would 
probably  answer,  "from  the  sun."  Let  us  see 
how  the  heat  behaves. 

In  the  morning,  as  the  sun  rises,  the  heat  that 
comes  from  it  glances  along  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  as  you  might  skip  your  ball.  It  does  not 
strike  very  hard,  and  the  air  does  not  get  very 
warm.  When  the  sun  is  nearly  overhead  the  heat 
goes  into  the  earth  around  us  instead  of  glancing 
off.  It  is  thrown  from  the  sun  so  fast  that  the  air 
does  not  catch  much  of  it  as  it  goes  through,  but 
the  earth  throws  it  back  more  slowly  and  then  the 
air  becomes  heated. 

Did  you  ever  stand  at  the  side  of  a  brick  or  stone 
or  even  a  wood  house  when  the  sun  was  shining 
on  it  in  summer  and  notice  how  hot  the  air  was 
there  ?  Did  you  ever  go  a  little  distance  away  from 
the  house  and  notice  that  it  grew  cooler?  Why 
was  it  warmer  near  the  house  ? 

The  earth  is  like  the  side  of  the  house;  it  throws 
back  into  the  air  the  heat  received  from  the  sun, 
and  the  air  that  is  nearest  to  it  receives  a  larger 
part  of  the  heat  than  the  air  further  away.  If, 
then,  you  could  rise  in  a  balloon  several  thousand 
feet  from  a  plain  on  the  earth,  would  you  find  it 
warmer  or  cooler?  If,  when  you  were  so  high, 
your  balloon  should  light  on  a  mountain  top,  you 
would  expect  still  to  find  the  air  cooler  than  on 
the  plain,  would  you  not?  There  are  many  parts 
of  the  world  where  the  low  plains  are  hot  and 
the  mountains  and  high  plains,  or  plateaus,  in  the 
same  region,  are  very  cool,  some  mountains  being 
so  high  that  they  are  always  covered  with  snow. 


For  Recitation: 

I .  The  sun  pours  heat  through  the  air  into  the 

I  Articles  entitled  "  For  Reading,"  should  be  made  the  subject  of 
cbnversation  until  the  pupil  thoroughly  understands  them.  The 
summary,  "  For  Recitation,"  may  then  be  committed  to  memory. 


22 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


earth  and  the  earth  gives  it  back  to  the  air.  The 
greatest  heat  is  received  where  the  sun  is  directly 
opposite  the  place  on  which  it  is  shining. 

2.  There  is  more  heat  in  the  air  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth  than  far  away  from  it.  High  mount- 
ains and  plateaus  are  cool  when  the  plains  below 
them  are  warm  or  hot. 


X.  MOISTURE. 
For  Reading: 

If  you  place  a  piece  of  ice  in  a  basin  in  the  sun, 
in  a  short  time  you  will  find  it  gone.  It  has  be- 
come a  liquid  which  we  call  water.  We  say  the 
ice  has  melted. 

If  you  place  a  basin  of  water  where  the  summer 
sun  will  shine  upon  it,  in  a  few  hours  you  will 
find  it  gone.  What  has  become  of  it  ?  It  has 
passed  into  the  air  in  the  form  of  vapor.  We  say 
it  has  evaporated. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  fog  ?  Where  ?  Did  it  rise 
from  the  sea  or  the  land  ?  When  the  sun  shone 
hot  after  a  rain,  did  you  ever  see  steam  rising  from 
the  top  of  a  house  or  bam  or  from  the  sidewalk  or 
the  ground  ?  All  this  fog  or  steam  we  call  vapor, 
or  moisture,  and,  though  enough  of  it  to  be  seen 
does  not  often  rise  at  once,  this  vapor  is  constantly 
going  up  into  the  air  from  the  ground,  from  rivers, 
ponds,  and  lakes,  and  from  the  ocean. 

Why  does  not  all  the  water  from  the  soil,  the 
rivers,  and  lakes,  and  from  the  sea  finally  go  olGF  in 
this  way  and  leave  the  beds  of  the  streams  and  of 
the  ocean  dry?  Read  a  little  further  and  you 
will  learn  why. 

See  a  pitcher  of  ice  water  in  the  summer  with 
the  drops  of  water  on  the  outside  surface.  The 
water  did  not  come  through  the  pitcher.  How 
did  it  get  there  ?  The  cold  pitcher  has  turned  the 
vapor  that  was  in  the  air  next  to  it  into  water 
drops. 

See  the  dew  on  the  grass  and  the  trees  in  the 


morning.  The  surface  of  the  earth  at  night  is 
cooler  than  the  air  next  to  it,  and  has  turned  the 
moisture  in  the  air  to  water,  as  the  surface  of  the 
cold  pitcher  did.  Besides  this,  it  has  cooled  the 
layer  of  air  next  to  it,  and  the  vapor  that  rose 
from  the  earth  and  from  the  leaves  of  the  trees  in 
the  night  has  been  turned  into  water  drops  by  this 
layer  of  cold  air  before  it  could  rise  from  the  grass 
or  the  leaves.  If  the  night  had  been  cold  enough 
the  vapor  would  be  frozen,  and  there  would  be 
frost  instead  of  dew. 

See  the  clouds  gather  and  the  sky  grow  dark 
and  the  rain  begin  to  fall.  Whence  did  it  come? 
The  thin  vapor  that  the  heat  of  the  sun  carried 
from  the  ocean  and  the  lakes  and  the  rivers  into 
the  air  has  met  a  layer  of  cold  air,  at  some  dis- 
tance above  the  earth,  and  has  been  turned  by  it 
into  water  drops  that  filled  the  clouds  and  that  are 
now  falling  to  the  earth.  We  say  the  vapor  has 
been  condensed  into  water.  If  the  layer  of  air  is 
cold  enough  the  vapor  that  rises  will  become  snow. 

When  the  vapor  rises  very  rapidly  so  that  it 
reaches  a  high  and  very  cold  layer  of  air  before  it 
freezes,  it  condenses  into  ice  pellets  called  Jiail. 
To  produce  this  rapid  rise  of  the  vapor,  great  heat 
is  required  and  for  this  reason  hail  storms  usually 
occur  in  the  warm  season  of  the  year  and  in  the 
hottest  part  of  the  day. 

In  these  ways  the  water  that  has  been  evaporated 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun  and  carried  upward  in  the 
air  is  condensed  and  returned  again,  in  dew  and 
rain,  frost  and  snow,  to  the  earth  and  the  sea, 
thus  preventing  the  streams  and  the  ocean  from 
drying  up. 

The  water  of  springs,  rivers,  and  lakes  is  all 
first  taken  from  the  sea  in  vapor.  When  this 
vapor  cools  and  the  rain  falls  upon  the  earth, 
springs,  rivers,  and  lakes  are  formed.  Thus  you 
will  see  that  the  ocean  is  the  source  of  all  the 
moisture  of  the  earth,  as  the  sun  is  the  source 
of  all  the  heat. 


CLIMA  TE. 


23 


For  Recitation: 

1 .  The  heat  of  the  sun  takes  up  moisture  from 
the  sea  and  the  earth  in  the  form  of  vapor,  which 
floats  in  the  air. 

2.  The  surface  of  the  earth  at  night  cools  the 
air  next  to  it,  and  turns  its  moisture  to  water 
drops,  called  dew.  This  cold  air  also  condenses 
into  dew  the  vapors  that  rise  from  the  earth,  and 
in  this  way  part  of  the  moisture  taken  up  by  the 
sun's  heat  is  returned  to  the  earth. 

3.  The  cold  air  above  our  heads  condenses  into 
Tain  drops  the  vapors  that  have  been  taken  up 
from  the  earth  and  the  sea  by  the  sun's  heat. 
These  rain  drops  fall  to  the  earth  and  help  to 
keep  up  its  moisture,  and  to  keep  its  streams, 
lakes,  and  oceans  from  becoming  dry. 

4.  The  ocean  is  the  source  of  all  the  moisture 
of  the  earth. 

Write  a  sentence,  using  the  words  heat,  water, 
evaporated. 

Write  a  sentence,  using  the  words  vapor,  con- 
densed, water. 


XI.    CLIMATE. 

3^or  Reading: 

Climate  is  the  name  for  a  condition  of  the 
atmosphere  with  respect  to  the  amount  of  heat 
and  moisture  it  contains.  Some  places  have  a 
lot  climate,  others  a  cool  climate,  and  still  others 
a  cold  climate;  some  have  a  moist  and  others  a 
•dry  climate. 

In  most  places,  as  you  have  already  learned,  the 
■climate  changes  with  the  seasons  of  the  year. 

On  low  or  very  large  plains  in  those  parts  of 
tlie  world  where  the  sun  at  noon  is  nearly  or 
■directly  overhead,  the  climate  is  hot.  On  high 
mountains  in  the  same  region,  as  you  have 
learned,  it  will  be  cool. 


Winds  often  carry  air  loaded  with  vapor  a  long 
distance  into  cooler  currents  of  air,  or  against  cold 
mountain  sides,  where  the  moisture  is  condensed 
into  rain,  thus  giving  countries  at  a  distance  from 
the  sea  a  moist  and  agreeable  climate. 

When  this  vapor  is  blown  against  mountains 
it  is  sometimes  stopped  by  them,  preventing 
countries  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountains 
from  receiving  rain. 

Mountains  sometimes  stop  the  cold  winds  that 
blow  against  them,  thus  giving  a  warmer  climate 
to  countries  on  the  opposite  side. 

You  see,  therefore,  that  winds  and  mountains, 
though  they  cannot  produce  either  heat  or  moist- 
ure, have  much  to  do  with  making  the  climate  of 
a  place  dry  or  moist,  warm  or  cool. 

Another  very  interesting  and  important  thing 
about  climate  you  may  learn  for  yourself.  Take 
a  bucket  of  water  and  a  bucket  of  sand  and  place 
them  side  by  side  in  the  sun  on  the  morning  of  a 
hot  day.  At  noon  the  sand  will  be  much  hotter 
than  the  water.  Why?  Because  the  earth  takes 
in  heat  much  faster  than  the  water. 

Now  let  both  buckets  stand  till  midnight  or  till 
near  morning  of  the  next  day.  The  water  will 
now  be  warmer  than  the  sand.  Why  ?  Because 
the  sand  throws  out  the  heat  it  has  taken  in  much 
faster  than  the  water,  and  therefore  cools  quicker. 

Now  think  of  the  ocean  as  a  great  bucket  of 
water  and  the  continent  as  a  great  bucket  of  sand. 
In  the  summer  days  the  continents  will  take  in 
heat  much  faster  than  the  ocean,  and  become 
much  hotter.  Therefore,  if  you  live  near  the 
ocean,  where  the  air  from  it  can  reach  you  before 
it  is  heated  by  the  land,  you  will  find  a  cooler  cli- 
mate in  summer  than  if  you  live  far  away  from  it. 
In  the  cold  weather  of  winter  the  continent 
throws  off"  its  heat  much  faster  than  the  ocean, 
and  therefore  becomes  cold,  much  sooner.  If 
you  now  live  near  the  ocean,  which  at  this  season 


/^#^2f%^ 


24 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


is  much  warmer  than  the  land,  you  will  find  the  air 
around  you  less  cold  than  if  you  lived  far  away. 
You  may  thus  discover  that  the  nearness  of 
a  place  to  the  ocean,  or  its  distance  from  it,  has 
much  to  do  with  its  climate. 


For  Recitation: 

1 .  In  those  parts  of  the  world  where  the  sun  at 
noon  is  nearly  or  directly  overhead,  the  climate  on 
low  or  very  large  plains  is  extremely  hot. 

2.  Winds  sometimes  carry  vapor  from  the  ocean 
to  places  at  a  distance,  where  it  is  condensed  into 
rain  by  cold  currents  of  air  or  by  high  mountains. 

3.  Countries  on  one  side  of  mountain  ranges  are 
sometimes  without  rain,  because  the  mountains 
stop  the  vapor  blown  against  them  on  the  oppo- 
site side. 

4.  Countries  on  one  side  of  a  mountain  range 
are  sometimes  much  warmer  than  countries  on  the 
other,  because  the  mountains  have  kept  off  the 
cold  winds  from  that  side. 

5.  Countries  near  the  sea  coast  have  a  cooler 
climate  in  summer  and  a  warmer  climate  in  win- 
ter than  those  far  away  from  it. 

Home  Questions. — Where  you  live,  is  the  cli- 
mate hot  or  cool?  Moist  or  dry?  What  is  the 
difference  between  the  summer  and  winter  climate, 
where  you  live  ?  Where  you  live,  what  winds  are 
hottest?  What  winds  are  cool?  What  winds 
usually  bring  rain?  Can  you  get  any  one  you 
know  to  tell  you  why  ? 


XII.  BELTS  OF  CLIMATE  CALLED  ZONES. 
A  strip,  or  belt,  of  the  earth,  very  wide  from 
north  to  south,  and  extending  all  the  way  around 
the  globe  from  east  to  west,  lies  directly  opposite 
the  sun.  Such  a  belt,  you  know,  must  be  very 
hot.     Because  it  is  so  hot  it  is  called  the  Torrid 


Zone.  (Torrid  means  //<?/,  and  zone  means  belt 
of  country.) 

The  parts  of  the  earth  farthest  north  and  south 
from  the  Torrid  Zone  are  the  coldest  regions.  This 
is  because  the  sun's  rays  strike  them  obliquely, 
that  is,  slantingly,  as  you  see  in  the  picture. 
They  are  called  Frigid  Zones.  (Frigid  means 
very  cold.) 

Between  the  Torrid  and  the  Frigid  Zones  are 
broad  belts  of  country  neither  extremely  hot  nor 
extremely  cold,  called  Temperate  Zones. 

The  Torrid  Zone  is  distinguished  for  the  size 
and  beauty  of  its  trees  and  flowers,  for  its  spices 
and  rich  fruits,  and  the  strong  odor  of  its  plants. 
The  mahogany,  palm,  coffee,  and  cinnamon  trees, 
the  banana,  pineapple,  and  sugar  cane  flourish  in 
this  zone.  The  largest  animals  are  found  amid  its 
luxuriant  vegetation,  and  the  forests  swarm  with 
birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  insects,  and  reptiles. 

The  Temperate  Zones  are  distinguished  for 
their  abundance  of  the  fruits  and  grains  most 
useful  to  man,  for  forests  producing  timber  best 
adapted  to  the  building  of  houses  and  ships  and 
the  manufacture  of  furniture,  and  for  plants 
adapted  for  clothing,  such  as  cotton,  flax,  and 
hemp.  In  this  zone  wild  animals  are  less  numerous 
than  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  but  the  more  useful  ani- 
mals, such  as  the  horse,  cow,  sheep,  and  deer,  are 
abundant. 

The  Frigid  Zones  produce  nothing  but  mosses 
and  lichens,  except  in  the  more  temperate  parts, 
where  a  little  barley  and  r>^e  are  grown,  and  a  few 
pines  and  other  hardy  trees  are  found.  Compar- 
atively few  land  animals  are  found  in  this  zone, 
but  sea  fowl  are  very  numerous,  and  the  sea 
abounds  with  the  whale,  seal,  and  walrus. 


For  Recitation: 

Questions. — Why  is  the  Torrid  Zone  hot? 
Why  are  the  Frigid  Zones  coldest?  Why  are 
the  Temperate  Zones  neither  so  hot  as  the  Torrid 


ZONES. 


25 


Zone  nor  so  cold  as  the  Frigid  Zones  ?    What  is  said 
of  the  vegetation  of  the  Torrid  Zone  ?   The  animals  ? 


Vegetation  of  the  Temperate  Zones  ?     Animals  ? 
Vegetation  of  the  Frigid  Zones  ?     Animals  ? 


Questions  on   Picture  of   the    Zones.— What  is  the  I  Where  is  the  South  Temperate  Zone?     The  North  Tem- 
name  of  the  zone    farthest    north?      Farthest  south?   |  perate  Zone?     Name  all  the  zones  from  south  to  north. 


From  the  Torrid  Zone  north.     From  the  Torrid  Zone  I  perate  Zone. )    Between  what  zones  does  the  Torrid  Zone 
south.     In  which  zone  do  you  live?    {Ans.   North  Tein-  \  lie?    The  North  Temperate  Zone?    The  South  Temperate 


26 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


Zone?  In  which  zone  do  you  see  fierce  wild  animals? 
In  what  zone  do  you  see  animals  useful  for  food  or  work? 
Which  zone  looks  pleasantest?  Why?  What  do  you  see 
in  the  North  Frigid  Zone? 

Write  a  description  of  the  zones  from  the  picture  of  them. 

Questions  on  Map  of  the  Zones.' — Is  the  Equator 
nearer  the  North  Pole  or  the  South  Pole?  Measure  and 
see.     Where,   then,   should   you  say  the    Equator  is? 


What,  then,  should  you  say  the  B^quator  is?  What  two 
lines  south  of  the  Equator?  Which  of  them  is  nearer 
the  Equator?  Between  what  lines  is  the  South  Temper- 
ate Zone?  The  Torrid  Zone?  The  North  Temperate 
Zone?  What  line  bounds  the  North  Frigid  Zone  on  the 
south?  What  line  bounds  the  South  Temperate  Zone  on 
the  north?  If  you  were  to  pass  from  one  zone  to  another, 
would  you  see  these  lines?  Why?  Draw  a  map  of  the 
zones  from  memory. 


XIII.  OCCUPATIONS. 


OFiAL     EXERCISE. 

(i)  Farming.  What  is  the  business  of  the 
fanD,er?  Make  a  list  of  all  the  products  of  the 
farm  and  garden  that  you  can  think  of.  What 
are  these  products  called?  i^Ans.  Vegetable 
Products.^  Are  the  farms  you  know  of  on  slop- 
ing or  level  ground?     Do  you   think   farming 

1  Reading  Hour:   World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  14.  ' 


regions  are  generally  found  on  hills,  or  in  val- 
leys ?     Why  should  they  be  found  there  ? 

(2)  Mining.  What  does  the  miner  do? 
Make  a  list  of  all  the  minerals  you  can 
think  of.     Have    you    ever    .seen    a    mine? 

What  kind  of  a  mine?     Where?     What  are  the 

products  of  mines  called? 

(3)  Manufacturing.  Name  all  the  manu- 
factured articles  that  3^ou  can  think  of.  What 
are  all  such  articles  called?  Name  three  things 
that  drive  the  machinery  in  factories,      i.  . 

(4)  From  the  following  list  select  the  manu- 


OCCUPATIONS. 


27 


factured  articles:  Wheat,  cloth,  stoves,  butter, 
iron,  wool,  milk,  flour,  cotton,  rice,  cheese,  pud- 
ding, starch,  wine,  potatoes,  grapes,  raisins, 
horseshoes,  leather,  cattle,  'hides.  Tell  from 
what  each  is  made. 

W^RITTEN     EXERCISE. 

Choose  from  the  three  following  subjects  and 
write  as  fully  as  you  can  upon  it: 

1 .  A  description  of  what  I  have  seen  men  doing 
on  a  farm. 

2.  A  description  of  what  I  have  seen  men  doing 
in  a  mine. 

3.  A  description  of  what  I  have  seen  people 
doing  in  a  factory. 

ORAL     EXERCISE. 

(4)  CoiVTMERCE.  Name  all  the  useful  things 
you  can  think  of  that  come  from  other  states  or 
countries.  Name  all  the  things  you  can  think  of 
that  are  produced  in  this  state  and  that  are  taken 
to  other  states  and  countries  to  sell.  How  do  the 
things  that  come  from  other  countries  or  states 
get  here?  How  are  the  things  that  we  produce 
taken  to  other  states  and  countries?  What  is 
the  business  of  exchanging  these  things  called? 
Name  all  the  classes  of  people  you  can  think  of 
that  are  employed  in  order  to  make  these  ex- 
changes. 

Vv^RITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Write  a  short  composition  that  shall  answer 
all  the  above  questions  and  read  it  for  the  next 
recitation. 

oral   exercise. 

(5)  Things  that  Favor  Different  Occu- 
pations. What  are  fertile  lands  ?  Barren  lands  ? 
Where  the  slopes  are  long  and  gradual  and  the 
rivers  slow,  making  the  valleys  large,  what  kind 
of  land,  fertile  or  barren,  should  we  expect  to 
find  ?  What  should  we  expect  to  find  most  of  the 
people  doing? 


Where  the,  slopes  are  shorter  and  steeper,  and 
the  rivers  swift,  with  frequent  rapids,  what  should 
we  expect  to  find  many  people  doing?     Why? 

In  what  kind  of  country  should  we  expect  to 
find  mining? 

In  a  country  with  an  uneven  coast  line,  having 
many  inlets  and  harbors,  what  branch  of  industry 
should  we  expect  to  see  flourish  ?  Why  ?  What 
is  a  harbor?  What  harbors  do  you  know  of  in 
this  state  ? 

-WRITTEN     EXERCISE. 

Write  what  you  have  learned  in  studying  the 
last  exercise  and  read  it  for  the  next  recitation. 


REVIEW  QUESTIONS. 

1.  What  is  a  slope?  A  hill?  A  mountain?  A  mount- 
ain range?  A  lake?  A  river;  right  bank;  left  bank;  bed; 
source;  mouth;  rapids;  levee;  crevasse?  A  river  system; 
tributary?     A  river  basin?     A  watershed?     A  plateau? 

2.  What  is  an  island?  A  peninsula?  A  gulf?  An 
isthmus?  A  strait?  Compare  an  island  with  a  lake. 
Compare  a  gulf  with  a  peninsula.  An  isthmus  with  a 
strait.  Define  a  continent.  An  ocean.  What  is  the 
difference  between  lake  water  and  ocean  water? 

3.  What  is  a  hemisphere?  Into  what  hemispheres  is 
the  earth  usually  divided?  What  is  the  large  body  of 
land  in  the  Western  Hemisphere  called?  In  the  Eastern 
Hemisphere?  How  large  a  part  of  the  earth's  surface  is 
land  and  how  large  a  part  is  water? 

4.  Why  is  it  hotter  at  noon  than  in  the  morning? 
Why  is  it  hotter  near  the  surface  of  the  earth  than  it  is 
several  thousand  feet  above  it?  From  what  source  does 
the  earth  receive  moisture?  When  moisture  is  solid, 
what  do  we  call  it?  When  it  is  liquid,  what  do  we  call 
it?  When  water  is  evaporated,  what  do  we  call  the 
moisture?  When  moisture  floats  in  the  air,  is  it  solid, 
liquid,  or  vapor?  How  does  it  become  liquid?  Why  is 
it  sometimes  true  that  the  climate  on  one  side  of  a 
mountain  range  is  very  wet,  and  on  the  other  very  dry? 
How  do  mountains  sometimes  give  a  warm  climate  to  the 
countries  on  one  side  of  them? 

Name  the  zones  in  their  order,  beginning  with  the  most 
northerly.  Between  what  lines  is  the  Torrid  Zone? 
What  line  divides  it  in  the  center?  Which  is  the  hottest 
zone?  Why?  Which  are  the  coldest  zones?  Why? 
Which  are  the  best  zones  to  live  in?     Why? 


28 


ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


XIV.    REVIEW 


OF    ELEMENTARY    MAP 
READING. 


[In  the  study  of  this  map,  the  knowledge  to  be 
gained  of  California  is  merely  incidental,  the  primary 
object  being,  simply,  to  give  additional  exercise  in 
map  reading  before  taking  up  the  general  map  studies 
of  the  book.  Hold  pupils  to  this  work  till  they  read 
accurately  and  quickly  all  that  is  called  for  by  the 
questions.  It  is  not  designed  that  the  answers  should 
be  memorized.] 

Questions. — Point  north  on  the  map;  south;  west; 

east.      Point  to  water;  to  land.      Trace,  with  pencil, 

the  line  of  land  bordering  the  water;  what  name  do 

you  give  to  it?     Point  to  mountains  and  name  them; 

to    other    mountains.      Trace,   with    pencil,  the 

mountains  on  the  east  side  of  the  state;  the 

west    side.       Point  out    three  rivers   and 

name  them.     Where  is  the   source  of 

each?     Trace  each  to  its  mouth.    Tell 

direction  of  mouth  from  source. 

Point  out  and  name  three  lakes 

and   tell   in   what    part    of 

California  each  is.    Point 

to  San  P'rancisco;  to 

Sacramento;       to 

three        towns 

near       San 


Francisco     and 

name  them;  to  three 

towns  in  the  southern 

part  of  the  state  and  name 

them;   to  three  towns  in  the 

northern  part  of  the  state  and 

name  them;  to  Mt.  Shasta.     Trace 

the  Sacramento  River  from  Mt.  Shasta 

to  Sacramento.      In  what  direction  does 

it  flow?     Do  you  go  up  hill  or. down  from 

Shasta  to  Sacramento?    From  Colusa  to  Sacra 

mento?     How  do  you  tell?     From  Marysville  to 

the  Sacramento  River?     From  Placerville?     F'rom 

Colfax?     From  Jackson?     From  Oroville?     From  San 

Andreas  to  Stockton?      Do  the  rivers  on  the  east  side 

the  Sacramento  River  run  from  the  Sacramento  to  the  n 

ains  or  from  the  mountains  to  the  Sacramento?     In  what  direction 

does  the  land  slope  between  the  eastern  mountains  and 

the  Sacramento?     In  what  direction  does  the  land  slope 

between  the  western  mountains  and  the  Sacramento  and 

San  Joaquin  Rivers?     How  does  the  land  slope  between 


Pronunciations.— Col' fax;  Los  An'gel5s(lez);  Pla'cerville;  San 
An'dreas;  San  Ber  nar  di/no;  San  Joaquin  (san  wah  keen'). 


Santa  Ana  and  San  Bernardino?  Between  Wilmington 
and  Los  Angeles?  How  can  you  tell  by  the  map  which 
way  the  land  slopes?  Is  Los  Angeles  or  San  Diego  on 
higher  ground  ? 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  OF  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS. 


29 


TOPICAL  OUTLINE  OF  ELEMENTARY  LESSONS  FOR  USE  BY  THE  TEACHER. 


,    f  I.  Northeast, 
I.    North  I  ^_  Northwest. 


Direction  J 


2.  South 

3.  East. 
^4.  West. 


J  I.  Southeast. 
l^  2.  Southwest. 


T-,.      ^.  r  I  I-  Wind  currents — from. 

Direction    of  <!        ,,,  ■'  , 

2.  Water  currents — toward. 


Guides  to  Direction 


1.  Sun. 

2.  Compass. 


Actual 


1.  Measuring. 

2.  Judging. 


Distances  <^ 

1^  2.  Arbitrary,  ScaL 


-Computing. 


Map    Reading 


fori 


I.  Direction. 
[  2.  Distance. 


Surface  Forms  < 


I.  Slope.    2.  Hill. 

3.  Mountain. 

4.  Mountain  Range. 

5.  Mountain  System. 
I.    Lands    6.  Valley — Basin. 

7.  Plain — Plateau. 

8.  Island. 

9.  Peninsula. 
.  10.  Cape.      II.  Isthmus. 


V2. 


Water 


1.  Lake. 

2.  River 


1.  Rapids. 

2.  Cataract. 
^  3.  Crevasse. 

3.  River  System. 

4.  Gulf.     5.  Strait. 


Map  Reading  for — Surface  Forms. 


(  I.  Shape — proof. 

Circumference. 


2.   Size 


[l 


Diameter. 


The  Earth  J 
asa  Whole  1 


1.  Daily — how  J 
3.  Motions  \  1 2-  Night. 

2.  Yearly— //(^w— Seasons. 


__       .     ,  ,1.  Eastern. 

14-   Hemispheres  (^_^^3^^^„_ 


Climate 


I! 


Heat. 


2.  Moisture. 


Zones  <^ 


{I.  Location. 
2.  Vegetation. 
3.  Animals. 

I.  North — location. 
Temperate  \  2.  South — location. 

3.  Vegetation.     4.  Animals. 


{I.  ISloTth.— location. 
2.  South — location. 
3.  Vegetation.     4.  Animals. 


I.  Farming — Conditions  of . 
Occupations  <|  2.  Mining — Conditions  of. 

3.  Manufacturing — Conditions  of. 


Map  Reading  for 


1.  Direction. 

2.  Distance. 

3.  Surface  Forms. 

^  4.  Towns  and  Cities. 


THE  NEW  WORLD— WESTERN  HEMISPHERE. 


The  lines  that  run  north  and 
south  on  this  map  are  called 

MERIDIANS. 


The   lines   that   run    east    and 
west  are  called  parai,i<ei<s 
of  latitude. 


Questions  on 
THE  Map. — i.  How 
many  oceans  do  you  find 
in  this  hemisphere?  Write 
their  names.  Which  is  farthest 
north?  In  what  zone  is  it?  Which  farthest 
south?  In  what  zone?  Which  lies  in  the  eastern 
part  of  the  hemisphere?  In  the  western  part?  What 
strait  connects  the  Arctic  Ocean  with  the  Pacific?  In 
what  direction  is  the  continent  of  this  hemisphere  longer 
— north  and  south  or  east  and  west?  On  which  side  of 
the  Equator  is  the  larger  part  of  it?  Into  what  two  Grand 
Divisions  is  it  divided?  What  isthmus  joins  them? 
Which  of  these  Grand  Divisions  do  you  think  is  the 
warmer?     Why?     The  longest  range  of  mountains  in  the 


world    lies    along 
the  western  coast  of 
this  continent.     What  is 
the  part  of  it  in  North  Amer- 
ica called?     In  South  America? 

2.  Write  the  name  of  a  river  in  North  America  that 
flows  north.  That  flows  south.  That  flows  west.  In 
what  zone  is  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie  River?  Would 
you  think  the  river  navigable?  Why?  In  how  many  and 
what  zones  is  North  America?  Write  the  name  of  a  river 
in  South  America  that  flows  south.     That  flows  east. 

Abbreviations.— I.,  Island;  Is.,  Islands;  R.,  River;  Pt.,  Point;  Sd.,- 
Sound;  Str.,  Strait;  C,  Cape;  G.,  Gulf. 

Pronunciations.— An' des  (diz);  Bearing;  Pan' a  ma. 


THE    OLD    WORLD— EASTERN     HEMISPHERE. 


Questions  on 
THE  Map. — I.  Write 
the  names  of  the  oceans 
you  find  in  this  hemisphere. 
Which  of  these  did  you  find  in 
the  Western  Hemisphere?  What  ocean  is 
wholly  in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere?  What  bay  and  seas 
cut  into  the  land  from  this  ocean?  Through  what  strait 
does  the  Red  Sea  cut  into  the  land?  What  gulf,  bay,  and 
seas  cut  into  the  land  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  What 
sea  passes  in  through  the  Strait  of  Gib  raF(rawl)tar? 
What  seas  cut  into  the  land  from  the  Pacific  Ocean? 

2.  What  are  the  three  Grand  Divisions  of  the  Eastern 
Continent?    By  what  water  is  Europe  separated  from 


Africa  ?         What 
water     between     Eu- 
rope and  Asia  (a'she-a)? 
Between    Africa    and    Asia? 
Write  the  names  of  four  islands 
between  Asia  and  Australia. 

3.  Write  the  name  of  a  river  in  Europe  that  flows  north. 
That  flows  east.  That  flows  south.  Write  the  same  of 
rivers  in  Africa.  Write  the  names  of  three  rivers  of  Asia 
that  flow  north.  Three  that  flow  east.  Two  that  flow 
south. 

Pronunciations.— Ben  ^aV(gawl);  BSb  el  man^deb;  Bdr'ne  o; 
C61/ebes;  Ja'va;  Su(soo)  ma''tra. 


32 


RACES  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  MEN. 


Questions  on  Both  Hemispheres. — Which  Grand 
Division  of  the  world  extends  farthest  north?  Which 
farthest  south?  Which  is  longest  from  east  to  west? 
Which  from  north  to  south?  Which  extends  farther 
south,  North  America  or  Asia?  Which  extends  farther 
north,  South  America  or  Africa?  Which  two  Grand 
Divisions  have  the  smoothest  coast  line? 

In  what  direction  from  North  America  is  South  Amer- 
ica? Europe?  Asia?  Africa?  In  what  direction  from 
South  America  is  Europe?  Asia?  Africa?  In  what 
direction  from  Africa  is  Europe?     Asia? 

Reverse  each  question  in  the  last  paragraph. 

WRITTEN    EXERCISE. 

Review  the  first  group  of  questions  on  the  map 
of  the  Western  Hemisphere;  then  copy  and  fill 
out  the  following  outline  with  the  i?iformation 
obtabted: 

"I  find  oceans  in  the  Western   Hemi- 


sphere, the  - 

is  farthest  — 

the is  farthest 

the is  on  the  - 

the on  the  — 


the , , .     Of  these 

and  lies  in  the zone; 

-  and  Hes  in  the zone; 

side  of  the  hemisphere  and 
The  continent  is  longest 


from to and  the  greater  part  lies 

of  the  Equator.     It  is  divided  into  the 

of and ,  which  are  joined  by 

the . is  the  warmer  of  these 

because .      The  long  range  of  mount- 
ains along  the  western  coast  receives  the  name  of 

mountains  in and mountains 

in ." 

In  a  similar  way,  write  a  short  composition  to 
tell  what  you  have  learned  from  answers  to  ques- 
tions in  the  second  group. 


RACES  AND  CONDITIONS  OF  MEN. 


For  Reading: 

People  in  different  parts  of  the  globe  differ  in 
color  of  skin  and  in  general  appearance.  Those 
alike  in  these  respects  are  said  to  belong  to  the 
same  Race. 

There  are  five  races^  of  men — the  Caucasian 
(cauca'sian),  or  white  race;  the  Mongolian  (mon- 
golian), or  yellow  race;  the  Malay',  or  brown 
race;  the  Ethiopian,  or  negro  race;  the  Indian, 
or  copper-colored  race. 

The  Caucasian  is  found  nearly  everywhere,  but 
is  most  numerous  in  Europe  and  America,  where 
it  is  the  ruling  race.  The  Mongolian  lives  mostly 
in  eastern  Asia;  the  Malay  in  Australia  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans;  the 
Ethiopian  in  Africa,  and  the  copper-colored  race 
in  America. 

1  Reading  Hour:    World  at  Large,  p.  74, 1,es.  32,  The  Ethiopian:  p. 
99,  Les.  42,  The  Indian. 


In  different  parts  of  the  globe,  also,  people  live 
in  very  different  ways.  These  ways  of  living  are 
sometimes  spoken  of  as  Savage,  Half  Civilized, 
and  Civilized. 

In  the  Savage  condition  men  do  not  read  or 
write  or  live  in  houses.  They  have  only  the 
rudest  huts,  and  sometimes  not  even  so  much  as 
those.  The  African  negroes  and  the  American 
Indians  are  of  this  sort. 

In  the  Half  Civilized  state  mankind  know 
little  of  such  things  as  telegraphs,  railroads,  and 
steamboats,  and  have  but  few  books.  Many  of 
them  lead  a  wandering  life  with  flocks  of  sheep 
and  herds  of  cattle.  This  state  of  society  pre- 
vails throughout  most  of  Asia. 

We  find  among  Civilized  people  well  built 
houses,  railroads,  steamboats,  telegraphs,  schools, 
colleges,  and' many  books.  Civilization  prevails 
in  the  society  of  Europe  and  America  and  in  the 


GOVERNMENTS. 


33 


British  possessions  in  Asia,  and  in  other  parts  of 
the  world  where  Europeans  have  settled. 


3.  In  what  part  of  the  world  does  each  chiefly 
belong?     How  many  of  these  races  make  up  the 
population  of  Cahfomia  ?    Which  are  they  ?    Which 
have  you  seen?     Describe  them. 

4.  Name  the  three  different  conditions  of  society. 

5.  Describe  the  Savage   condition.     What   peo- 
ple are  in  this  condition? 

6.  Describe  the  Half  Civilized 
condition.  In  what  part  of  the 
globe  is  it  found  ? 


For  Recitation: 

1.  When   are   people   said 
to  belong  to  the  same  race  ? 

2.  How  many  races  are  there  and  what  are 
their  names? 


7.  What  are  the  marks  of  a  Civilized  state,  and 
where  does  it  exist? 


GOVERNMENTS. 


H 


For  Reading: 

Most  of  the  Governments  of  the  world  are 
either  Republics  or  Monarchies. 

The  place  where  the  chief  officers  reside  and 
where  the  laws  are  made  is  called  the  Capital. 

In  republics  the  people  choose  the  men  who  are 


to  govern  them.  The  chief  ruler  is  usually  called 
a  President. 

In  monarchies  the  chief  ruler  is  not  chosen  by 
the  people,  but  is  the  son  or  heir  of  a  former 
ruler. 

In  some  monarchies  the  laws  are  made  by  men 


34 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


who  are  chosen  by  the  people,  and  the  monarch 
simply  sees  that  they  are  obeyed. 

In  other  monarchies,  whatever  the  sovereign 
decrees  is  law.  When  this  is  the  case  the  gov- 
ernment is  called  a  Despotism. 

When  the  chief  ruler  of  a  monarchy  is  called 
a  King  or  Queen,  the  country  is  called  a  King- 


dom; when  the  chief  ruler  is  called  an  Emperor 
the  country  is  called  an  Empire. 

The  greatest  progress  in  knowledge,  invention, 
and  comfortable  ways  of  living  is  made  in  repub- 
lics and  in  monarchies  whose  people  have  a  large 
share  in  the  government. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


QUESTIONS     ON     THE     MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map  and  not 
committed  to  memory.] 

1.  Position,  Form,  and  Extent. — In  what  hemi- 
sphere is  North  America?  In  what  part?  Start  east 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  pass  around  North  America  atid 
name  all  the  waters  that  wash  its  shores.  Name  the 
waters  that  cut  into  the  land.  The  peninsulas  and  capes 
that  project  into  the  water.  Is  the  coast  line  regular  or 
irregular?  What  part  of  North  America  is  widest?  For 
how  many  miles  does  an  inch  on  this  map  stand?  Meas- 
ure the  map  from  Cape  Prince  of  Wales  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  How  far  is  it  by  your  rule?  For  how  many 
tniles  does  that  stand?  Measure  the  map  frojn  the  north- 
ern point  of  Queen  Charlotte's  Island  to  St.  fohns,  New- 
foundland (new'fund  land).  How  far  is  it  by  your  rule? 
For  how  many  miles  does  that  stand?  What,  then,  is  the 
greatest  length  of  North  America?  What  is  its  greatest 
width? 

2.  Mountains. — In  what  part  of  North  America  do  you 
find  mountain  ranges ?  In  what  direction  does  the  eastern 
range  run?  The  western  ranges?  Which  of  the  western 
ranges  is  farthest  east?  Which  two  lie  nearest  the  Pacific 
coast?  What  range  between  these  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains? 

Write  a  short  composition  to  tell  iv hat  y on  have 
learned  from  the  answers  to  questions  in  the  last 
group. 

3.  Si,OPES,  Rivers,  Lakes. — How  can  you  tell,  on  the 
map^  which  way  the  land  slopes? 

By  following  the  rivers,  we  shall  find  all  the  land  in 
North  America  included  in  four  great  land  slopes:  The 
Arctic  Slope;  The  Atlantic  Slope;  The  Gulf  Slope;  and 
The  Pacific  Slope.  Within  each  of  these  great  slopes  we 
shall  also  find  many  smaller  ones. 


In  which  of  these  great  slopes  does  each  of  the  follow- 
ing rivers  lie:  The  Mississippi;  The  Ohio;  Missouri; 
Arkansas  (ar'kan  saw) ;  Red. —  Colora'do ;  Columbia; 
Yu'kon. —  Mackenzie;  Nelson. —  St.  Lawrence. 

Describe  each  of  the  above  by  the  following 

Model:  The  Mississippi  River  lies  in  the  Southern,  or 
Gulf,  Slope  of  North  America.  It  rises  in  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States  and  flows  in  a  southerly  direc- 
tion to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Its  eastern  tributary  is  the 
Ohio,  and  its  western  tributaries  are  the  Missouri,  the 
Arkansas,  and  the  Red  Rivers. 

Is  it  up  hill  or  down  from  the  eastern  mountains  to  the 
Mississippi?  From  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rocky  Mount- 
ains? In  what  direction  does  the  land  slope  on  each  side 
of  the  Mississippi?  Name  and  locate  five  large  lakes 
connected  with  one  another. 

4.  Zones  and  Climate. — In  how  many  zones  does 
North  America  lie?  In  what  zone  is  the  greater  part  of 
North  America?  In  what  zone  is  the  northern  part? 
The  central  part?  The  southern  part?  What  varieties 
of  climate  will  you,  therefore,  find  in  North  America? 

5.  Countries  of  North  America. — Beginning  at  the 
north,  name  the  four  principal  countries  of  North  Amer- 
ica. Bound  the  United  States;  British  America;  Mex- 
ico; Central  America.  Name  the  capital  of  each.  The 
chief  city. 

Model:  The  United  States  is  bounded  on  the  north  by 
British  America,  on  the  east  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  on 
the  south  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Mexico,  on  the 
west  by  the  Pacific  Ocean;  capital,  Washington;  chief 
city.  New  York. 

6.  Give  the  location  of  the  following  islands:  Green- 
land; Iceland;  Newfoundland;  Bermuda  Islands;  Ba- 
hama Islands;  Cuba;  Hay'ti;  Porto  Ri'co;  Jamaica. 

Model:  Greenland  is  an  island  lying  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  northeast  of  North  'America.  Iceland  is  east  of 
Greenland. 

To  what  group  of  islands  do  the  last  four  named  be- 
long? 

Pronunciation.— Car  ib  bean. 


^TT 


Loiii^itude  "West 


^  -Y^ 


Greenwich        ,? 


^ 


^^ 


,.'--<i)\ 


^ 


o.^/er 


< 


>o 


^^/i^ 


''■.9*><C£R  I  'Vl    \. 


NOHTH 
AMERICA  ^ 

SCALE,   700  MILES  TO  ONE    INCH.- 
SCALE  OF  MILES 


0  200  400  000  800 

^  Capital. 

®  Ijirgest  Town  or  City. 

@  Capital  and  Largest  City. 


20,000  Feet 
16.000  Feet 
10,000  Feet 
6,000  Feet 


Jl,D.S«rTOM.Eiig'r.N.T. 


36 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


Description  of  Animals  Shown  in  the 
Picture. 

For  Reading  Only: 

The  Seal  lives  mostly  in  the  water,  though  spending 
some  months  of  each  year  on  land.  The  organs  by 
which  it  moves  are  neither  legs  nor  fins,  but  resemble 
both,  and  its  motions  on  land  are  very  awkward  and 
laughable.  It  is  found  chiefly  in  the  polar  regions  and 
never  in  the  tropics.  The  different  kinds  vary  in  length 
from  five  to  twelve  feet,  and  are  large  in  proportion. 
Its  fur  is  of  the  highest  value.  Seals  are  very  intelli- 
gent animals  with  soft,  beautiful  eyes.     Many  amusing 

anecdotes  are  told  of  their  behavior,  when  tamed. 

The  Walrus  belongs  to  the  same  family  as  the  seal, 
inhabiting  only  the  polar  regions.  It  is  an  enormously 
large  animal,  being  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  in  length. 
Its  tusks  furnish  a  good  ivory.  It  is  valuable  for  its  skin, 
teeth,  and  oil. The  Polar,  or  White,  Bear  is  a  pow- 
erful animal,  living  on  fish  and  seals,  which  it  captxu-es, 
but  is  able  to  go  a  long  time  without  food.  It  is  a  good 
swimmer,  sometimes  crossing  a  strait  forty  miles  in 
width.  It  has  been  said  to  bury  itself  under  the  snow  in 
winter,  remaining  during  the  entire  season.  This  is  true, 
however,  only  of  the  female.     The  male  roams  at  large 

in  winter  as  well  as  in  summer. The  Grizzly  Bear, 

which  inhabits  the  Rocky  and  Sierra  Nevada  mountain 
region,  is  more  dreaded  than  any  other  animal  of  North 
America.  This  bear  is  about  eight  feet  long,  eight  feet 
around  the  body,  and  weighs  about  800  pounds.  Its 
strength  is  enormous,  it  runs  swiftly,  its  claws  are 
sharp,  and  its  anger  is  terrible.  Other  wild  animals  live 
in  such  fear  of  this  bear  that  even  a  hungry  wolf  will 
rapidly  leave  the  locality  marked  by  the  print  of  the 

grizzly's  feet. The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep  is  about 

three  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  shoulders  and  is  found 
in  troops  of  twenty  or  thirty  inhabiting  the  region  of 
the  most  inaccessible  rocks,  timid,  and  fleeing  from  the 

approach  of  man. The  Moose  is  the  largest  of  the 

deer  tribe,  is  seven  feet  high,  with  large,  flat,  branching 
horns.     It  does  not  reach  its  full  size  till  about  fourteen 

years  of  age. The  Beaver  is  an  animal  belonging  to 

the  tribe  o{  gnawers,  social  in  disposition,  living  in  col- 
onies, and  building  houses  and  dams  out  of  trees,  brush, 
and  stones,  stuck  together  with  mud.  It  has  been 
thought  that  the  beaver  plasters  on  the  mud  with  its 
broad  tail,  as  a  mason  plasters  with  a  trowel,  but  this  is 
denied  by  those  who  have  observed  the  creature's  opera- 
tions. The  beaver  employs  its  teeth  in  felling  and  cut- 
ting up  the  trees  used  in  its  structures,  which  are  built 
in  the  clear  streams  of  British  America  and  the  northern 
part  of  the  United  States. The  Virginia   Deer  is  a 


beautiful  and  active  creature  whose  flesh,  called  venison 
(vSn^izn),  is  much  prized  for  food,  and  whose  skin  is 
used  by  the  Indians  for  clothing.  The  horns  of  the 
male  are  large  and  branching,  and  grow  and  fall  off"  every 
year.  While  in  the  early  stages  of  grov^rth,  they  are 
burning  hot,  owing  to  the  fierce  flow  of  the  blood  through 

them  necessary  to  build  up  the  bone  so  rapidly. The 

Antelope  is  a  graceful  little  animal  with  slender  legs,  a 
split  hoof,  and  short  tail,  resembling  the  deer.  It  is 
found  on  the  unsettled  western  prairies. — r-The  Bison 
travels  in  herds  on  the  treeless  plains  of  the  temperate 
zone,  and  is  fast  disappearing.  Great  numbers  have  been 
slaughtered  for  their  hides  only,  and  their  bodies  left  to 
the  wolves  and  birds.     The  flesh  is  of  good  quality  for 

food. The  Panther  is  an  animal  of  the  cat  tribe,  and  is 

found  almost  everywhere  in  the  wild  forests  of  the  Tem- 
perate Zone.  It  is  a  fierce  and  cruel  creature,  quick  of 
motion,  with  sharp  teeth  and  claws,  and  is  more  than  a 

match  for  almost  any  dog. The  Peccary,  found  in  the 

warm  climates  of  North  America,  is  a  kind  of  wild  pig, 
weighing  only  fifty  or  sixty  pounds.  It  has  little  intelli- 
gence, a  fierce  disposition,  and  no  fear.  A  herd  of  these 
animals  has  been  known  to  put  to  rout  a  party  of  hunters 
and  dogs  in  the  utmost  confusion. — <— The  Alligator  be- 
longs to  the  crocodile  tribe  of  reptiles.  It  is  found  mostly 
in  the  rivers  and  lakes  of  the  states  bordering  on  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  is  a  powerful  creature  about  ten  feet  in 
length.  The  alligator  is  a  hard  creature  to  kill.  When 
pierced  by  bullets  and  stuck  full  of  spears  it  still  writhes 
and  struggles,  snapping  its  jaws  and  lashing  its  tail  with 

great  fiury. The  Eagle  of  North  America  is  a  bird  of 

lofty  and  fierce  bearing,  of  keen  sight,  and  swift  wing— 
a  bird  dreaded  by  all  the  rest  of  the  feathered  tribe  that 
inhabit  the  same  locality.  Though,  on  account  of  its 
covurage  and  strength,  it  was  selected  as  the  emblem  of 
our  nation,  yet  Benjamin  Franklin  objected  to  the  selec- 
tion, because  it  is  "a  bird  of  bad  moral  character  and 

does  not  get  its  living  honestly." The  Wild  Turkey 

inhabits  the  forest  regions  of  the  central  part  of  the 
United  States,  where  it  is  much  sought  by  hunters  and 
valued  as  food.      It  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the 

domestic  turkey. The  tame  Parrot  is  well  known.     In 

its  wild  state  the  favorite  food  of  the  North  American 
parrot  is  cockle-burs.  It  is  affectionate  in  disposition 
and  often  manifests  its  tenderness  in  a  touching  manner. 


Reading  Hour:  Wood's  Mammalia,  p.  509,  The  Seal;  p.  513,  The 
Walrus;  p.  409,  The  Polar  Bear:  p.  400,  The  Grizzly  Bear;  p.  683, 
The  Rocky  Mountain  Sheep;  p.  688,  The  Moose;  p.  566,  The  Beaver; 
p.  701,  The  Virginia  Deer;  p.  605,  The  Antelope;  p.  630,  The  Bison; 
p.  163,  The  Panther;  p.  751,  The  Peccary. 

Wood's  Reptiles,  p.  31,  The  Alligator. 

Wood's  Birds,  p.  46,  The  Eagle;  p.  620,  The  Wild  Turkey;  p.  526, 
The  Parrot.  . 

What  wild  animals  have  you  seen  in  your  own  neigh borhooa  ? 

lfe"each  pupil  take  some  animal  of  the  picture,  learn  its  habits, 
and,  Friday  afternoon,  impart  his  information. 


ANIMALS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 


37 


38 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


DESCRIPTION. 

NATURAL    DIVISIONS   OF    NORTH   AMERICA. 

[The  Reading  Hour:  As  the  study  of  North  America 
proceeds  ask  pupils  to  look  in  such  books  of  those  re- 
ferred to  for  supplementary  reading  as  may  be  at  com- 
mand, or  any  books,  magazines,  or  newspapers  that  touch 
the  matter  in  hand,  and  find  some  brief  extract  suitable 
to  read  in  class.  ] 

I.  Atlantic  Slope. 

For  Reading: 

If  you  have  studied  the  map  questions  well,  you 
have  learned  the  size  of  North  America  by  meas- 
uring the  map.  You  have  noticed  the  chain  of 
mountains  on  the  east  and  the  ranges  on  the  west, 
and  you  have  followed  out  the  rivers  to  the  sea 
in  four  directions — have  you  not? — east,  north, 
south,  and  west. 

Now,  look  again  at  the  map  and  notice  once 
more  the  Appala'chian  (eastern)  range  of  mount- 
ains. The  country  east  of  these,  as  you  see  by 
the  short  rivers,  slopes  rapidly  down  to  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean,  and  this  slope  along  the  whole  eastern 
side  of  North  America  is  called  the  Atlantic  Slope, 
or  Atlantic  Plain,  and  is  the  most  thickly  settled 
part  of  this  Grand  Division. 

Many  fine  rivers  flow  down  from  the  mountains 
through  this  plain.  The  largest  cities  of  North 
America  are  built  on  these  rivers  and  on  the  bays 
that  cut  into  the  land.  Vessels  pass  up  and  down 
their  channels,  carrying  the  articles  of  an  exten- 
sive trade. 

Many  smaller  streams  also  run  down  from  the 
hills  of  this  slope  and  furnish  water  power  to  turn 
the  machinery  of  factories  to  make  cotton  cloth, 
woolen  cloth,  shoes,  paper,  railroad  cars,  furniture, 
and  almost  everything  that  people  use. 


For  Recitation: 

I.    I.  The  land  of  North  America  east  of  the 


Appalachian  Mountains  is  called  the  Atlantic 
Slope.  The  Atlantic  Slope  is  more  thickly  peopled 
than  any  other  division  of  North  America. 

2.  The  largest  cities  of  North  America  are  built 
on  the  rivers  of  this  slope  and  on  the  bays  of  the 
Atlantic  coast. 

3.  Many  small  streams  furnish  water  power  for 
mills  and  factories. 

Note. — In  the  sections,  "For  Recitation,"  a  variety 
of  method  has  been  suggested.  In  some  instances  a 
brief  statement  of  the  leading  points  of  the  text  has 
been  made  for  the  pupil  to  memorize.  This  has  been 
done,  mainly,  to  show  him  how  to  summarize  for  him- 
self in  answer  to  questions,  and  is  confined  chiefly  to  the 
earlier  lessons  of  the  book.  In  other  cases  questions  are 
asked,  and  in  others,  still,  the  topic,  merely,  is  suggested. 
The  teacher  can  vary  these  methods  as  the  ability  of  the 
class  may  suggest. 

II.  The  Great  Central  Plain. 

For  Reading: 

Now  let  us  look  once  more  at  the  map  and 
imagine  ourselves  to  be  upon  the  top  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains.  If  we  turn  toward  the  west 
we  shall  be  looking  down  upon  the  most  important 
region  of  this  Grand  Division.  It  is  called  the 
Great  Central  Plain  of  North  America,  and  ex- 
tends westward  from  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  north  and  south 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

In  this  Great  Central  Plain,  about  half  way 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf,  Hes  a  strip  of 
high  land  that  crosses  it  from  east  to  west,  and 
which  is  called  the  Height  of  Land. 

This  strip  divides  the  Great  Central  Plain  into 
two  parts,  so  that  all  the  large  rivers  on  the  south 
of  the  strip,  except  the  St.  Lawrence,  which  breaks 
out  eastward  from  the  Great  Plain  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  flow  south  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  all  on  the  north  flow  toward  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
These  two  parts  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  are 


THE   GREAT  CENTRAL   PLAIN. 


39 


two  of  the  four  great  slopes  of  North 
America.  Five  of  the  largest  and  most 
important  lakes  in  the  world  lie  on  the 
southern  side  of  this  Height  of  Land. 
They  are  connected  with  one  another  by 
narrow  straits  and  short  rivers,  like  links, 
and  are,  therefore,  often  called  "the 
chain  of  Great  Lakes." 

Lake  Superior  is  the  farthest  west, 
and  is  the  highest  of  these  lakes,  which 
flow  down,  one  into  another,  until  they 
reach  Lake  Ontario,  whose  waters  flow 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  the 
sea.  The  waters  of  Lake  Erie,  when 
flowing  through  Niag'ara  River  into 
Lake  Ontario,  fall  over  a  great  precipice. 


OuTLixE  OF  North  America. 

1 60  feet  down,  making  the  famous  Falls 
of  Niagara.  The  roar  of  the  falling 
water  is  sometimes  heard  for  fifty  miles, 
and  a  cloud  of  vapor  rises  constantly 
from  the  foot  of  the  falls. 

Nearly  all  of  the  Great  Central  Plain 

Progressive  Map  Drawing. — Four  draw- 
ings of  North  America  by  Charles  Boehme,  a 
pupil  in  the  fifth  year  of  the  schools  of  Sac- 
ramento, are  given  to  illustrate  a  valuable 
means  of  impressing  the  essential  facts  relat- 
ing to  a  country  upon  the  mind  of  the  pupil. 
These  maps  are  drawn  from  inspection — no 
measurements  being  taken.  The  series  should 
be  carried  to  a  fifth  map,  adding  the  leading 
cities.  The  child  who  does  it  clumsily  is 
helped  as  much  as  the  more  skillful.  A  simi- 
lar progressive  series  should  be  drawn  of  all 
maps  given  in  the  book. 


40 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


lying  south  of  the  Height  of  Land  is  in  the  Gulf 
Slope,  and  consists  mainly  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley. 

It  is  the  largest  fertile  tract  of  land  in  North 
America.  If  you  look  at  the  map  and  notice  its 
great  extent,  and  what  part  of  the  Temperate 
Zone  it  is  in,  and  thfe  g^eat  number  of  rivers  that 
run  through  it,  you  would  guess  this  without 
being  told. 

The  part  of  the  Great  Central  Plain 
that  lies   north   of  the   Height  of 
Land  is  called  the  Arctic  Slope. 

It  is  well  watered,  as 
wiU  see  by  the  map,  and 
that  part  of  the  slope 
lying  near  the  Great 
Lakes  is  fertile.  Far- 
ther north,  however, 
though  the  rivers  are 
abundant,  but  little 
can  be  raised,  and 
therefore  the  inhabit- 
ants are  few.  Look  at 
the  map  and  give  the 
reason  for  this. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  The  region  of  country  between  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  all 
the  way  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  is  called  the  Great  Central  Plain  of 
North  America. 

2.  The  Height  of  Land  is  a  strip  of  country, 
slightly  elevated,  which  crosses  the  Great  Central 
Plain  from  east  to  west,  about  half  way  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

3.  Most  of  the  country  south  of  this  strip  slopes 
toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  that  on  the  north 
toward  the  Arctic  Ocean. 


4.  Five  of  the  largest  lakes  in  the  world  lie  on 
the  southern  side  of  this  Height  of  Land. 

5.  The  waters  of   these  lakes  flow  eastward 
through  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  the  ocean. 

6.  Nearly  all  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  lying 
south  of  the  Height  of  Land  is  in  the  Gulf  Slope. 

7.  The  Gulf  Slope  is  the  largest  fertile  tract  of 

land  in  North  America. 

8.  The  part  of  the  Great  Central 
Plain  lying  north  of  the  Height 
of  Land  is  called  the  Arctic 
Slope. 

9.  The  southern  part 
of  the  Arctic  Slope  is 
fertile,  the  northern 
part  unproductive. 

III.  Plateau  Region 
AND  Pacific  Slope. 

For  Reading: 

As  we  go  westward 
from  the  Missouri 
River,  across  the  Great 
Central  Plain,  we  begin 
slowly  to  ascend  the 
eastern  side  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains.  The  ascent  is  so  gradual  that 
travelers  are  often  surprised  to  be  told  that  they 
are  on  the  top  of  the  mountains,  when  they  seem 
all  the  time  to  have  been  crossing  a  plain. 

Between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Si  er'ra 
Neva'da  Range,  a  region  of  high  land,  sometimes 
called  the  Great  Plateau  Region,  stretches  on  to 
the  west  for  nearly  1,000  miles.  Here  and  there 
in  this  region  some  mountain  streams  ripple 
through  narrow  valleys  that  can '  be  cultivated, 
but  the  general  surface  is  rugged  and  rocky,  some 
of  its  peaks  rising  nearly  three  miles  above  the 
level  of  the  sea. 


PEOPLE,  PRODUCTIONS,  AND  ISLANDS. 


41 


In  the  Rocky  Mountain  system  are 
found  some  of  the  greatest  of  those 
wonderful  cuts  through  mountains, 
called  canons  (kan'yon).  These  canons 
seem  like  great  chasms,  or  splits,  in  the 
earth,  but  in  reality  they  are  deep  chan- 
nels, worn  by  streams  of  water  flowing 
for  thousands  and  thousands  of  years. 

The  most  remarkable  of  these  chan- 
nels is  the  canon  of  the  Colorado  River,  ^ 
whose  sides,  or  walls,  rise,  in  some 
places,  straight  up  nearly  a  mile  and  a 
half.  If  you  can  think  of  some  place  a 
mile  and  a  half  away,  and  then  imagine 
that  place  to  be  lifted  up  overhead, 
keeping  all  the  time  at  the  same  dis- 
tance, you  would  get  a  good  notion  of 
the  depth  of  one  of  these  canons. 

This  Plateau  Region,  though  rough, 
is  full  of  interest,  and  the  journey 
across  it  brings  us  at  last  to  the  Pacific 
Slope.  Here  verdure  and  beauty  spring 
up  again,  and  rich  valleys,  bearing 
nearly  all  kinds  of  grains  and  fruits, 
spread  out  before  us. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  Describe  the  ascent  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  from  the  eastern  side. 

2.  That  part  of  North  America  lying  Ijetween 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Range  is  a  highland,  called  the  Great  Plateau 
Region,  and  is  nearly  1,000  miles  wide.  What 
about  streams  and  valleys  in  the  Plateau  Region  ? 

3.  Many  great  canons  are  found  in  the  Plateau 
Region.  A  caiion  is  a  deep  channel  worn  in  the 
earth  by  a  stream  of  water  flowing  for  thousands 
of  years. 

4.  Write  a  description  of  the  Colorado  Canon. 

5.  The  country  west  of  the  Plateau  Region  is 

1  Reading  Hour:    King' fi  Met /tods  and  Aids  in  Geography,  pp.  281, 
282,  Caflons  of  the  Colorado. 


OuTLiXE,  Mountains,  and  Drainage. 


called  the  Pacific  Slope,  and  is  a  rich  and  fertile 
region,  producing  a  great  variety  of  grains  and 
fruits. 


PEOPLE,    PRODUCTIONS,    ISLANDS. 
I.   Original  Inhabitants. 
For  Reading: 

But  few  of  the  inhabitants  now  remain  who 
occupied  North  America  when  the  whites  first 
came.  The  Esquimaux^  (es'ke  moz)  still  dwell 
along  the  northeastern  and  northern  shores  in 
their  round  topped  huts,  and  subsist  by  hunting 
and  fishing.  They  are  clothed  with  seal  skins  in 
winter  and  reindeer*  skins  in  summer. 

1  Reading  Hour:   World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  27,  Esquimaux  Houses. 
Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  9,  The  Esquimaux  Sister. 

Scribner's  Geographical  Reader  and  Primer,  pp.  79-82. 

2  Easy  Steps  for  Little  Feet,  p.  12,  The  Reindeer. 


42 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


^  M.. 


A  few  of  the  Red  m&n,  or  Indians,*  yet  remain 
in  the  western  part  of  the  Central  Plain  and  in 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region.      When   the   whites 
came  the  Indians  occupied  all  of  North  America 
except  the  southern  part  and  the  country  of  the 
Esquimaux.     Huts  of  bark,  or  tents,  called 
wigwams,  like  those  you  see  in  the  pict 
ure,  formed  their  dwellings;  and  game 
taken  in  the  hunt,  with  fish  from 
the  rivers,  were  their  food.  ItJiiJi 

The    Zuni  (zti'ni)     and     the 
Aztec  (az'tec)   people   formerly 
occupied  the  country  south  of 
these.     A   few   hundred    Zunis 
(niz)  may  still  be  found  in  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico,  but  the 
Aztecs  have 
disappeared. 
The  pict- 
ure shows 
the  sort  of 
dwellings 
they  occu- 
pied.     In 
many  pla- 
ces   some 
portions 
of  the  ru- 


l^fc^ 


ms 

stand. 


vet 


f""^       g  ^  )Tiriyw^^fyi||UP!il^^«y 


^^w 


i  J  i 


II.  European  (eii  ro- 
pe an)  SETTI.ERS. 


IVorld  by  ike  Fireside,  p.  56,  Stories  of  the  Medicine  Bag. 


For  Reading: 

The  first  settlers   in 
the   Dominion   of 
Canada,  nearly  300 
years    ago,     were 
from  France,   and 
their  descendants, 
who    occupy    the 
eastern  part  of  the  coun- 
try, still  speak  the  French 
language.     A   little   more 
than  100  years   afterward 
England  conquered  Cana- 
da, and  Englishmen  settled 
the    central    and  western 
portion   of    the    territory, 
where    the    English    lan- 
guage is  now  spoken. 

In  the  United  States  the 
inhabitants  are  mostly  of 
English  descent,  the  English  having  been 
most  active  in  the  early  settlement  of  the 
country.     People  of  many  nations,  however, 
are  now  settled  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
but  the  English  language  is  the  prevailing 
speech. 
In  Mexico  the  Aztec  tribes  were  conquered  by 
the   Spaniards   more   than   300  years  ago,  and, 


PRODUCTS— MINERAL,   VEGETABLE.  ANLMAL. 


43 


although  Mexico  has  long  been  an  inde- 
pendent country,  the  people  are  mostly 
descendants  of  Spaniards,  and  still  speak 
the  Spanish  language. 


For  Recitation: 

I.  What  three  classes  of  people  occu- 
pied North  America  when  the  whites 
came?     Tell  about 

1.  Esquimaux  (a)  where,  (b)  dwell- 
ings, (c)  subsistence,  (d)  clothing. 

2.  Indians  (a)  former  territory,  (b) 
present  location,  (c)  dwellings,  (d)  sub- 
sistence. 

3.  Zunis  and  Aztecs  (a)  former  loca- 
tion, (b)  what  about  them  now. 

II.  I.  Canada — Time  of  settlement; 
first  settlers;  conquerors;  languages 
spoken;  in  what  parts. 

2.  United  States — Descent  of  most 
of  the  people;  other  settlers;  prevailing 
language. 

3.  Mexico — Original  tribes;  conquer- 
ors;  time  of  conquest;  present  inhabitants;    Ian 
guage. 


III.  Products — Mineral,  Vegetable,  An- 
imal. 

For  Reading: 

Nearly  all  the  products  of  the  globe  are  found 
in  the  Grand  Division  of  North  America. 

The  mountain  regions  are  rich  in  Minerals. 
In  the  eastern  range  men  have  found  immense 
beds  of  iron  ore,  and,  near  by,  mines  of  coal, 
which  is  needed  to  melt  the  ore.  .  Here,  too,  are 
found  the  most  productive  wells  of  a  mineral  oil 
called  petro'/etim,  though  both  coal  and  oil  occur 


Outline,  Mountaixs,  Drainage,  Products. 

in  various  places  all  the  way  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Beds  of  copper  and  lead  are  found  near  the  cen- 
tral part  of  the  Height  of  Land. 

In  the  western  ranges  have  been  found  great 
quantities  of  gold  and  silver.  Quicksilver  is 
needed  to  separate  the  gold  from  the  dross,  and 
to  provide  for  this  necessity  Nature  has  placed 
near  the  gold  mines  beds  of  quicksilver,  just  as, 
in  the  eastern  range,  coal  was  supplied  to  separate 
the  iron  from  the  ore. 

Great  forests  occupy  the  highlands  of  a  wide 
belt  of  country  through  the  central  part  of  North 


44 


NORTH  AMERICA. 


America  from  east  to  west,  and  afford  abundant 
supplies  of  lumber  both  for  building  and  furnish- 
ing. The  principal  varieties  are  pine,^  fir,  red- 
wood, ash,  cherry,  oak,  chestnut,  and  maple. 

In  the  central  part  of  the  Gulf  Slope  are  great 
forests  of  walnut.  Forests  of  cedar  and  cypress 
abound  in  the  low  plains  and  swamps  of  the  At- 
lantic Slope  toward  the  south,  and  rosewood  and 
mahogany  in  the  southwest  and  extreme  south. 

The  Atlantic  Slope,  the  Central  Plain,  and  the 
Pacific  Slope,  in  the  middle  and  northern  parts, 
yield  the  products  of  a  temperate  climate — corn, 
wheat,  oats,  rye,  potatoes,'  tobacco,^  apples, 
peaches,  plums,  cherries,  grapes,  though  in  the  far 
north  only  the  hardiest  of  these  are  found.  In  the 
south  a  tropical  climate  produces  cotton,  sugar, 
oranges,  pineapples,  and  ba  na'nas. 

The  Animals  of  all  zones  are  found  in  North 
America.  The  fur  bearers,  such  as  the  seal,  white 
bear,  and  beaver,  are  found  in  the  north;  those 
best  suited  for  food,  as  the  bison,  deer,  elk,  and 
turkey,  are  found  in  the  central  or  temperate  belt, 
also  the  grizzly  bear,  the  Rocky  Mountain  sheep, 
the  wolf,  and  the  fox;  while  in  the  tropical  re- 
gions we  see  the  monkey,  the  parrot,  the  alligator, 
and  the  pec'cary. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I .  Describe  any  mines  that  you  have  seen. 
Where  in  North  America  are  the  chief  supplies  of 
iron  and  coal?  Of  petroleum?  Of  copper  and 
lead?  Of  gold  and  silver?  Of  quicksilver?  Name 
and  write  three  uses  of  iron.  Of  coal.  Of  petro- 
leum. Two  uses  of  gold.  Three  of  silver.  Three 
of  quicksilver.     Two  of  copper. 

iLet  each  pupil  take  one  of  these  woods  and  learn  all  he  can 
about  it— where  it  grows,  its  peculiarities,  what  it  is  used  for,  etc. 
He  may  get  his  knowledge  from  any  source  and  impart  it  to  the 
class  Friday  afternoon. 

2  Reading  Hour:  World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  74,  Story  of  the  Potato 
Plant. 

3  World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  73,  Story  of  the  Tobacco  Plant. 


2.  Which  of  the  trees  named  are  chiefly  used 
in  building?  Which  to  make  furniture?  Oppo- 
site the  name  of  each  kind  of  wood  write  a  list  of 
the  things  you  have  seen  made  of  it. 

3.  Where  is  walnut  chiefly  found  ?  Cedar  and 
cypress  ?     Rosewood  and  mahogany  ? 

4.  Write,  in  a  column,  all  the  products  men- 
tioned of  the  farm  and  orchard,  and  opposite  each 
one  write  all  the  articles  of  food,  clothing,  medi- 
cine, or  drink,  made  from  that  product. 

Model: 


Product. 

Food. 

Clothing. 

Medicine. 

Drink. 

Corn. 

Bread. 
Mush. 
Cakes. 

Whisky. 

5.  Animals  (a)///r  bearers — what,  where,  (b) 
food  animals — what,  where,  (c)  what  other  ani- 
mals, (d)  tropical  animals. 


IV.  Islands  of  North  America. 

Some  of  the  islands  of  North  America  belong 
to  European  nations,  and  some  have  independent 
governments. 

Greenland'  and  Iceland  belong  to  Denmark, 
a  country  of  Europe.  Greenland  is  about  one 
fourth  as  large  as  the  United  States,  but  nothing 
can  grow  more  than  twenty  miles  back  from  the 
shore.  Beyond  that  all  is  ice  and  snoW.^  Most 
of  the  people  are  Esquimaux.  Along  the  western 
coast,  however,  are  a  few  European  trading  posts. 

Iceland,^  though  milder  in  climate  than  Green- 

1  Reading  Hour:  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands,  p.  306, 
traits  of  character  and  food;  p.  307,  houses;  p.  308,  dress;  pp.  309, 
310,  occupation;  p.  312,  burial. 

World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  27,  The  Greenlander. 

2  Reading  Hour:  Scribner's  Geographical  Reader  and  Primer,  pp.  76, 
77,  78,  Arctic  Days. 

3  Reading  Hour:  Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands,  p.  196, 
education;  p.  197,  winter  occupation;  p.  204,  food;  p.  206,  houses;  p. 
54,  geyser;  p.  67,  day  and  night. 

World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  46,  Icelanders'  Ways. 


ISLANDS— TOPICAL  REVIEW. 


45 


land,  is  yet  a  cold  and  barren  country.  Volcanoes  are  numer- 
ous. Springs  of  boiling  water,  called  Geysers  (gi'zer),  spout 
from  the  earth.  Hardy  ponies,  cattle,  and  sheep  live  on  the 
wild  grass  that  grows  in  the  valleys.  The  people  are  indus- 
trious, intelligent,  and  hospitable  in  character,  though  un- 
cleanly in  their  habits. 

Newfoundland  belongs  to  Great  Britain,  though  not  to  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  and  has  an  English  population,  mostly 
engaged  in  fishing. 

The  most  important  group  of  islands  is  the  West  Indies, 
lying  between  North  and  South  America.  In  passing  to 
them  from  Greenland  and  Iceland  we  go  from  the  barren- 
ness of  the  Frigid  Zone  to  the  rich  vegetation  of  the  tropics. 
In  these  islands  we  travel  through  plantations  of  coffee,  cot- 
ton, sugar,  pineapples,  oranges,  bananas,  tobacco,  and  spices. 
We  see  forests  of  mahogany,  rosewood,  and  palm,  and  meet 
an  indolent  people,  made  up  of  Spaniards  and  their  descend- 
ants, and  negroes.  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  belong  to  Spain, 
Hayti  is  independent,  and  Jamaica  is  under  the  government 
of  Great  Britain.     Havana,  in  Cuba,  is  the  chief  seaport. 


For  Recitation: 


IV.   I.   Greenland — Belongs  to  what  nation;  size;  extent 


of  cultivation;    Esquimaux;    Europeans, 

2.  Iceland — Climate;  fertility;  volcanoes;  gey- 
sers;  domestic  animals;  people. 

3.  What  of  Newfoundland? 

4.  West  Indies — Locality  as  to  zone;  produc- 
tions; forests;  people.  Why  are  the  people  indo- 
lent? 


TopicAiv  Review  of  North  America. 

Write,  in  your  own  language,  all  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  North  America  that  you  know,  using, 
as  a  guide,  the  following  topics: 


Position. 
Extent. 


Coast  Line. 
Mountains. 


Drainage: 

(Slopes  and  Rivers.) 

Climate. 

People. 

Productions: 

(Mineral,  Vegetable,  Ani 

mal.) 


Cities  and  Towns: 

(Location,  for  what  noted, 
etc.) 


Note. — This  exercise  in  review  gives  the  pupil  an 
opportunity  to  tell,  in  orderly  form,  what  he  knows  of 
the  subject.  One  test  of  this  kind  in  connection  with 
each  of  the  Grand  Divisions  should  be  made.  A  collec- 
tion of  questions  to  be  answered  often  reveals  less  of 
what  a  pupil  knows  than  of  what  he  does  not  know. 
Should  the  pupil  at  first  need  assistance  in  bringing  his 
faculties  to  bear  upon  this  kind  of  work,  questions  can 
be  asked  that  will  aid  him.  If  what  he  writes  in  these 
reviews  is  copied  in  a  blank  book,  he  will  have,  at  the 
end  of  the  course,  a  very  complete  little  Geography  of  his 
own  composition. 


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ATLANTIC  OCEAN 


B.D.Servo3s,  EncX  N.  V. 


48 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Pacific  Slope. 


Plateau  Region. 


Rocky  Mountains. 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map,  and  not  to 
be  committed  to  memory.] 

1.  Position,  Extent,  Naturai,  Divisions. — In  what 
part  of  North  America  is  the  United  States?  Measure 
the  distance  from  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  to  the  extreme 
eastern  point  of  Maine?  What  is  the  distance  on  the 
map?  How  many  tniles  is  that?  Measure  the  distance 
from  the  extreme  southern  point  of  Texas  to  the  tiorthern 
boundary  of  Dakota.  What  is  the  distance  on  the  tnap? 
How  many  miles?  What,  then,  is  the  extent  of  the 
United  States  from  east  to  west,  exclusive  of  Alaska? 
From  north  to  south?  In  the  same  way  find  the  distance 
from  San  Francisco  to  New  Orleans;  to  Chicago;  to  New 
York.  What  is  that  part  of  the  country  that  lies  east  of 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  called?  That  lies  between 
the  Appalachian  and  the  Rocky  Mountains?  What  is 
that  part  of  the  country  called  between  the  Rocky  and 
Sierra  Mountains?  What  is  that  part  of  the  country 
called  west  of  the  Sierras? 

2.  Si^oPES  AND  Mountains.— How  many  of  the  four 
great  slopes  of  North  America  are  found  also  in  the 
United  States?  Which  are  they?  What  mountain  ranges 
of  North  America  are  found  also  in  the  United  States? 
What  slope  of  the  United  States  lies  east  of  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains?  What  great  divisions  of  the  United 
States  are  separated  by  the  Appalachian  Mountains?  In 
which  of  the  four  great  slopes  is  the  larger  part  of  the 
Great  Central  Plain  of  the  United  States?  What  mount- 
ains bound  the  Gulf  Slope  on  the  west? 

3.  S1.0PES  and  Rivers.— What  do  the  rivers  that  flow 
into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  form?  {Ans.  The  Atlantic  River 
System.'\  Natne  seven  rivers  of  this  sys ton.  Which  of 
these  form  the  boundary  lines  of  states?  Describe  each. 
[See  Model,  page  34.]  What  slope  is  drained  by  the 
Atlantic  River  System?  What  do  the  Mississippi  and  its 
tributaries  for m  ?  {A  ns.  The  Mississippi  River  System.  J 
Najne  three  eastern  and  three  western  tributaries  of  the 
Mississippi.      Which  of  these  form  the  boundaries  of 


states?  Describe  each.  What  name  is  given  to  the  region 
of  country  drained  by  the  Mississippi  River  System? 
\^Ans.  The  Mississippi  Valley. '\  In  which  of  the  four 
great  slopes  of  North  America  does  the  Mississippi  Val- 
ley lie?  What  river  forms  part  of  the  southwest  bound- 
ary of  the  United  States?  Beginning  with  the  Yukon, 
name  five  rivers  of  the  Pacific  Slope.     Describe  each. 

4.  Lakes. — What  chain  of  lakes  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  United  States?  Which  of  these  lie  between  the 
United  States  and  Canada?  Which  one  lies  wholly 
within  the  United  States?  What  river  takes  the  water 
of  these  lakes  to  the  ocean?  What  lake  in  Utah?  For 
what  are  most  of  the  lakes  of  the  Great  Plateau  Region 
noted?  \_Ans.  They  have  no  outlet. '\  What  becomes  of 
the  water  that  runs  into  these  lakes? 

5.  Peninsulas  and  Islands. — What  peninsula  pro- 
jects from  Alaska?  What  natural  division  of  land  forms 
the  southeastern  part  of  the  United  States?  Between 
what  two  bodies  of  water  is  it?  What  chain  of  islands 
southwest  of  Alaska?    Southeast  of  the  United  States? 

6.  Climate. — In  what  zone  is  the  United  States? 
Which  are  the  warm  states?  How  do  you  tell?  Which 
states  and  territories  are  coldest?  Which  states  are  tieither 
very  hot  nor  very  cold?  In  which  of  these  three  groups 
is  California? 

7.  Location  of  States. — Rule  three  columns  on 
slates  or  paper.  Write  in  the  first  column  the  names 
of  fourteen  states  that  touch  the  Atlantic  Ocean;  in  the 
second,  their  capitals;  in  the  third,  the  largest  town  of 
each. 

Model: 


State. 

Capital. 

Largest  Town. 

Maine. 

Augusta. 

Portland. 

In  the  same  way,  write  the  names  of  five  states  that 
touch  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     Eight  states  touching  the 


HISTORY. 


49 


Great  Central  Plain. 


Atlantic  Slope. 


Great  Lakes.  Five  states  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Five  on  the  east  bank.  Three  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Ohio.  Two  on  the  south  bank.  Six  states 
touched  by  the  Missouri  River.  Between  which  of  these 
states  does  the  Missouri  form  part  of  the  boundary  line? 
Which  states  does  it  cross?  In  which  of  the  four  great 
natural  divisions  of  the  United  States  do  the  last  seven 
groups  of  states  lie?  Write  the  states  and  territories 
crossed  by  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Three  states  and  ter- 
ritories that  touch  the  Pacific  Ocean.  What  states  are 
best  situated  for  lake  commerce?  What  for  river  com- 
merce? Through  what  states  would  you  travel  in  a 
straight  line  to  reach  New  York?    New  Orleans? 

8.  Location  of  Cities. — The  following  are  the  chief 
commercial  cities  of  the  Atlantic  Slope;  name  the  loca- 
tion of  each:  Portland,  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia, 
Baltimore,  Charleston. 

The  following  are  the  chief  commercial  cities  of  the 
Great  Central  Plain;  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul,  St.  Louis 
(saint  loo'i).  New  Or'le  ans,  Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Lou- 


isville, O'ma  ha,  Kansas  City,  De  troit',  Chicago,  Mil- 
waukee. Locate  and  write  the  names  of  those  situated 
on  the  Mississippi;  on  the  Ohio;  on  the  Missouri;  on  the 
Great  Lakes. 

Locate  the  following  cities  of  the  Pacific  Coast: 
Seattle,  Portland,  San  Francisco,  Los  An'ge  les. 

9.  Thought  Questions. — Would  you  think  the  rivers 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  swift  or  slow? 
Why?  What  would  you  think  about  these  rivers  for 
water  power?  Would  you  think  the  rivers  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley  swift  or  slow?  Why?  Would  you  think  the 
slope  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico steep  or  gradual?  Why?  Notice  the  part  of  the 
Temperate  Zone  in  which  this  valley  lies,  and  the  num- 
ber of  rivers  in  it,  and  tell  whether  you  think  it  a  fertile 
or  an  unproductive  country.  If  fertile,  what  would  you 
judge  the  occupation  of  the  people  to  be? 

Pronunciatioxs.— Aleutian  (a  lu'  she  an);  Baton  Rouge  (bSt'un- 
roozh);  Boi'se  (boy'ze);  Cheyenne  (shI  en');  Concord  (konk'urd);  Des 
Moines  (de  moin')j  Gal'veston;  H61e'na;  Illinois  (il  li  noi);  Mich' 
i  gan;  Mon  ta'na;  Mont  pel'ier;  Raleigh  (raw'ly);  San'ta  Fe  (fa); 
Tah'le  quah;  Tucson  (tu  s6n');  Wy  o^ming. 


DESCRIPTION. 

HISTORY.i 
For  Reading: 

You  need  not  be  told  that  the  country  you  are 
now  to  study  is  our  own  and  is  a  Republic. 

The  settlement  of  our  country  began  on  the 
Atlantic  coast.  There,  nearly  300  years  ago, 
people  from  different  countries, in  Europe  began 
to  make  settlements. 

Spaniards  settled  in  Florida,  but  their  settle- 
ments did  not  flourish. 

Englishmen  settled  along  the  coast  from  Vir- 
ginia northward  to  Boston,  wherever  there  were 
good  harbors. 

I  Reading  Hour:    Our   World  Reader^  p.  i8i,  How  America  was 
found. 


The  Dutch  settled  in  New  York,  but  the  En- 
glish took  it  from  them. 

Although  these  settlers  had  a  hard  time  for 
many  years,  with  the  cold  winters  and  the  savage 
Indians,  the  settlements  grew  in  number  until,  in 
a  little  more  than  150  years,  they  reached  up  into 
the  Appalachian  Mountains. 

All  this  time  the  settlers  north  of  Florida  were 
under  the  government  of  Great  Britain,  but  they 
now  joined  in  a  struggle  for  freedom,  and  after  a 
long,  hard  war  with  England  they  compelled  her 
to  let  them  go.  They  then  formed  for  themselves 
the  Government  of  the  United  States. 

After  this  they  began  to  go  over  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  into  the  Mississippi  Valley.    The 


50 


THE   UNITED  STATES. 


United  States  bought  Florida  from  Spain,  and, 
from  France  all  of  her  country  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Thousands  of  people  from  Europe  came 
to  settle  in  the  United  States.  Railroads  began 
to  be  built  to  carry  them  westward,  and  so  the 
country  kept  filling  with  people  until,  in  less  than 
I  GO  years,  they  had  spread  out  to  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  over  new  "country  obtained  from  Mexico. 
By  and  by  more  will  be  told  about  the  settlement 
of  California. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  The  country  of  the  United  States  was  first 
settled  on  the  Atlantic  Slope  nearly  300  years  ago. 

2.  The  Spaniards  settled  in  Florida. 

3.  Englishmen  settled  along  the  northern  part 
of  the  coast. 

4.  The  Dutch  were  the  first  settlers  of  New 
York. 

5.  The  settlers  north  of  Florida  remained  under 
the  government  of  Great  Britain  for  a  little  more 
than  150  years,  wHen,  after  a  long  war  with 
England,  they  established  a  government  of  their 
own. 

6.  After  the  new  government  was  established, 
many  thousands  of  people,  from  all  parts  of 
Europe,  came  here,  and  in  less  than  100  years 
settlements  and  railroads  had  reached  through 
the  country  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


THE    ATLANTIC    SLOPE. 

I.  Natural  Features. 

For  Reading: 

Look  at  the  map  and  you  will  notice,  by  the 
direction  of  the  rivers,  that  most  of  the  land  of 
the  Atlantic  states  slopes  to  the  southeast. 

You  will  notice,  also,  that  in  the  northern  part 
of  this  division  the  mountains  come  nearer  to  the 


seacoast  than  in  the  southern  part,  making  the 
surface  of  the  country  more  broken.  For  this 
reason  the  rivers  of  this  part  are  more  rapid  than 
those  farther  south. 

The  coast  line  of  these  northerly  states  is  very 
much  broken,  making  a  large  number  of  excellent 
harbors. 

The  coast  along  the  southern  half  of  this  great 
slope,  and  for  man}^  miles  inland,  is  low,  sandy, 
and  marshy.  There  are,  therefore,  fewer  good 
harbors  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern  half. 
Long,  narrow,  sandy  islands  line  this  part  of  the 
coast  also,  and  prevent  easy  access  to  its  harbors. 

If  we  ascend  the  rivers  we  shall  find  most  of 
them  flowing  slowly  through  a  wide,  level  coun- 
try with  a  rich  soil. 

In  a  region  extending  so  far  north  and  south 
there  must  be  a  great  variety  of  climate.  Long, 
cold  winters  and  short,  hot  summers  are  found  in 
the  north,  while  there  is  almost  no  winter  in  the 
south.     It  is  warm  there  during  the  whole  year. 

When  we  think  of  the  differences  in  surface, 
coast  lines,  rivers,  and  climate,  we  may  judge 
that  there  are  also  great  differences  in  products 
and  occupations.     And  this  we  shall  find  is  true. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  In  what  direction  does  the  land  of  the 
Atlantic  states  slope?     How  do  you  tell? 

2.  Compare  the  surface  of  the  states  north  and 
south.  What  difference  in  the  character  of  the 
rivers  ? 

3.  Coast  line  and  harbors  in  the  north. 

4.  Coast  lands  and  harbors  in  the  south. 
Islands. 

5.  Soil  and  surface  in  the  south. 

6.  Compare  the  climate  north  and  south. 

7.  Differences  in  surface,  coast  lines,  rivers, 
and  climate  make  different  occupations. 


ATLANTIC  SLOPE. 


51 


II.    Manufacturing — IvUmbering — Fishing 
— Quarrying — Mining,  in  the  North. 

For  Reading: 

Wherever  mountains  are  near  the  coast  the 
rivers  that  rise  in  them  are  short  and  rapid.  Such 
rivers  furnish  water  power  to  drive  machinery, 
hence  manufacturing  is  usually  one  of  the  princi- 
pal occupations  of  the  people.  Nearly  all  the 
rivers  in  the  northern  part  of  this  slope  are  of 
this  kind,  especially  those  in  the  six  states  east 
of  New  York,  which  are  sometimes  called  the 
New  Eng-land  States. 


are  employed  in  the  great  pine  woods  of  Maine 
and  New  Hampshire,  and  along  the  Appalachian 
Mountains,  in  getting  out  lumber. 

Thousands  more  are  catching  cod,  mackerel, 
and  herring  off  the  coast  of  Maine  and  Massachu- 
setts. The  fisheries  off  these  coasts  yield  many 
thousand  tons  a  year. 

The  marble  and  granite  quarries  of  Vermont 
and  New  Hampshire  also  give  employment  for 
many  people. 

The  vast  mines  of  coal  and  iron  in  the  eastern 
sideof  the  Alleghan}^  Mountains,  in  Pennsylvania, 


'The  City  of  Spindles.' 


■  One  river  in  New  Hampshire  and  Massachu- 
setts— the  Merrimac — is  said  to  move  more  spin- 
dles than  any  other  river  in  the  world.  Lowell, 
the  largest  city  situated  on  this  river,  is  some- 
times called   "The  City  of  Spindles." 

Some  of  the  most  important  articles  manufact- 
ured in  the  states  north  of  the  Ches'a  peake  Bay 
are  cotton,  linen,  and  woolen  goods,  boots  and 
shoes,  firearms,  locomotives,  steamers,  farming 
tools,  silverware,  watches,  jewelry,  clocks,  fur- 
niture, pianos,  all  kinds  of  hardware,  sewing 
machines,  and  paper. 

While  so  large  a  number  of  the  people  of  this 
Tegion  are  engaged  in  manufacturing,  thousands 


keep  a  large  population  busy,  and  yield  nearly  all 
the  hard  coal  (anthracite)  and  almost  half  the  iron 
used  in  the  country.  Here,  too,  is  found  nearly 
all  the  petroleum,  or  coal  oil,  of  commerce,  and 
natural  gas  wells  are  frequent.  Zinc  is  found  in 
New  Jersey. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  The  rivers  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
Atlantic  Slope,  and  especially  in  New  England, 
are  short  and  rapid,  and  furnish  water  power  for 
extensive  manufacturing.  Name  the  New  En- 
gland States. 


52 


THE   UNITED  STATES. 


2.  The  Merrimac  River,  in  New  England,  fur- 
nishes more  water  power  than  any  other  river  in 
the  world.     How  can  a  river  be  said  to  move 


spindles  ? 


Gloucester— A  Fishing  Port  of  Massachusetts 

Copy  the  following  and  fill  the  blanks: 

The  largest  city  on  the River  is ,  and 

it  is  sometimes  called  ' ' . " 

3.  Copy  the  list  of  manufactured  articles  and 
commit  it  to  memory. 

4.  Lumber — where  produced. 

5.  Cod,  mackerel,  and  herring  fisheries  off  the 
coast  of  Maine  and  Massachusetts  are  important. 

6.  Marble  and  granite  quarries  are  extensive 
in  Vermont  and  New  Hampshire. 

7.  Large  quantities  of  coal,  iron,  and  petroleum 
are  found  in  Pennsylvania,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  mountains.     Zinc  is  found  in  New  Jersey. 


III.  Farming  and  Commerce  in  the  North. 

For  Reading: 

We  have  found  so  many  people  engaged  in  the 
factories,  forests,  fisheries,  quarries,  and  mines  of 
the  northern  states  of  the  Atlantic  Slope  that  you 


will,  perhaps,^  be  surprised  to  learn  that  more 
people  are  engaged  in  farming  than  in  any  of  the 
other  employments — New  England  being  espe- 
cially famous  for  sheep  and  cattle;  New  York  for 
rf,,^  butter,     cheese,     and     horses; 

New  Jersey  and  Delaware  for 
garden  vegetables,  berries,  and 
orchard  fruits;  and  Pennsylva- 
nia for  the  varied  farm  products 
of  its  rich  valleys. 

What  becomes  of  all  that  is 
made  in  the  factories,  all  the 
fish  caught  from  the  sea,  all  the 
marble  and  granite  cut  from  the  quarries, 
all  the  anthracite  and  iron  dug  from  the 
mines,  all  the  coal  oil  taken  from  the  oil 
wells?  Are  they  all  used  by  the  people 
of  these  states  north  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay.? 
No.  'Very  great  quantities  of  all  these  things, 
and  some  things  produced  on  the  farms,  are  sold 
to  foreign  countries  and  to  other  states  of  our 
own  country. 

In  exchange  the  people  receive  articles  which 
they  need,  and  which  they  do  not  make  or  raise, 
such  as  tea,  coffee,  sugar,  molasses,  spices,  fruits, 
silks,  wool,  leather,  tin,  india  rubber,  and  medi- 
cines. This  work  of  exchange  gives  another 
occupation  for  a  large  number  of  the  people — the 
occupation  of  commerce. 

We  may  now  begin  to  appreciate  the  fine  har- 
bors along  the  northeastern  coast  of  the  United 
States,  which  furnish  a  safe  place  for  thousands 
of  ships  to  lie  at  anchor  while  loading  goods  for 
export  and  unloading  goods  which  they  have 
brought  from  other  countries. 

The  largest  and  most  important  cities  of  the 
country — Boston,  New  York,  Brooklyn,  and  Phil- 
adelphia— are  built  around  these  harbors.  The 
Delaware  River  makes  a  harbor  for  the  city  of 

Reading  Hour:  Fox  Hunting,  p.  iii,  Red  Fox. 


ATLANTIC  SLOPE. 


53 


New  York  Shipping. 

Philadelphia.  New  York  is  the  largest  city  in 
the  United  States,  and  is  the  great  center  of  trade 
with  foreign  countries  and  between  the  states  of 
our  own  country. 

Its  trade  with  the  states  of  our  own  country  is 
carried  on  by  means  of  canals,  rivers,  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  almost  countless  railroads  that  extend 
over  the  Appalachian  Mountains  and  run  in  all 
directions  through  the  Great  Central  Plain  and 
across  the  Plateau  Region  to  the  Pacific  Slope. 

You  will  find  it  well  to  remember  that  the 
largest  cities  of  the  world,  and  the  most  thickly 
settled  countries,  are  found  wherever  there  are  the 
hest  advantages  for  commerce  and  manufactures. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  Name  the  farm  products  for  which  New 
England  is  chiefly  noted.  New  York.  Delaware 
and  New  Jersey.     Pennsylvania. 

2.  Exports  from  states  north  of  the  Chesapeake 
Eay.     3.   Imports. 


4.  The  harbors  along  the  coast 
of  this  section  give  it  great  ad- 
vantages for  commerce,  which 
is  one  of  the  chief  occupations 
of  the  people. 

5.  The  great  cities  of  the 
country  are  built  around  these 
harbors.  New  York  is  the 
largest  city  in  the  United  States 
and  is  the  most  important  com- 
mercial city. 

6.  How  is  the  commerce  be- 
tween New  York  and  the  inte- 
rior states  carried  on  ? 


7.  Where  are  the  largest  cities 
and  the  greatest  population  of  a  country  found  ? 


Elevated  Railway,  New  York. 


IV.  Occupations  and   Productions   in   thk 

South. 
For  Reading: 

South  of  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  some  mines  of 
coal  and  iron  are  found,  but  the  surface  of  the 


54 


THE   UNITED  STATES. 


country,  the  soil,  and  the  climate,  nearer  to  the 
coast,  are  so  different  from  those  of  the  states 
further  north  that  the  people  follow  very  different 
occupations.  Most  of  the  country  is  laid  out  in 
large  plantations,  where  tobacco,  com,  rice,  and 
cotton  are  raised.  Manufactures  are,  however, 
rapidly  increasing. 


A  great  number  of  negroes  live  in  these  states 
and  work  on  the  plantations.  They  were  once 
slaves,  but  are  now  free. 

The  plantations  of  Virginia  and  Maryland  are 
very  extensive,  producing  great  crops  of  com  and 
tobacco.  The  most  extensive  oyster  beds  in  the 
country  are  found  in  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  oflf  the 
coast  of  these  two  states. 

Rice,  though  yielding  large  crops  on  the  up- 
land, is  best  grown  on  land  that  Hes  a  part  of  the 
time  under  water.  The  low,  swampy  coast  of 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia,  which  is  overflowed 
by  the  tide,  is  therefore  well  adapted  to  the  culti- 
vation of  rice,  making  these  two  the  great  rice 
states  of  the  country.  Cotton  is,  however,  the 
most  important  crop.  The  best  quality,  called 
sea  island  cotton,  is  raised  on  the  low  islands  near 
the  coast. 

All  along  the  seacoast,  from  Virginia  to  Flor- 


ida, but  especially  in  North  Carolina,  are  immense 
forests  of  pitch  pine  trees,  from  which  are  obtained 
turpentine,  tar,  pitch,  and  resin.  These  are  called 
naval  stores,  because  so  much  used  in  and  about 
ships.  Turpentine  is  the  sap  of  the  tree;  resin 
is  made  from  turpentine,  and  pitch  is  made  by 
boiling  down  the  tar,  which  has  been  obtained  by 
burning  the  gummy  pine  trees 
in  a  close  fire. 

Other  kinds  of  valuable  trees 
grow  in  these  southern  forests, 
such  as  cedar,  cypress,  and 
juniper,  from  which  shingles 
and  staves  are  made;  and  Hve 
oak  and  white  oak,  much  used 
in  building  ships.  The  wood 
of  the  red  cedar  trees  of  the 
Florida  swamps  is  the  best 
wood  known  for  making  lead 
pencils. 

Florida  is  chiefly  noted  for  its 
orange  groves  and  as  a  resort  for  invalids  on 
account  of  its  favorable  climate.  Sponge  fishing 
and  the  manufacture  of  cigars  is  carried  on  at 
Key  West,  the  most  southerly  town  of  the  United 
States,  situated  on  one  of  the  little  islands  lying 
to  the  southwest  of  the  mainland  of  Florida. 

From  what  has  been  said  of  the  products  of  this 
section  you  will  readily  see  that  the  exports  must 
be  tobacco,  oysters,  rice,  cotton,  pitch,  tar,  tur- 
pentine, and  oranges. 

The  chief  imports  are  those  of  the  northern  sec- 
tion, except  cotton,  wool,  and  leather.     Manufact- 
ured goods  of  all  kinds  are  also  largely  imported. 
The  chief  cities  are  Baltimore,  Washington, 
Charleston,  and  Atlanta. 


For  Recitation: 

IV.   I .   Mines  of  coal  and  iron  are  found  in  the 
western  mountains  of    the  states  south  of    the 


THE  GREAT  CENTRAL  PLAIN. 


55 


Chesapeake  Bay.    The  low  country  raises  tobacco, 
com,  rice,  and  cotton. 

2.  Negroes  do  most  of  the  work  on  the  planta- 
tions. 

3.  Com  and  tobacco  are  the  chief  crops  of  Vir- 
ginia and  Maryland.  Oyster  fishing  is  important 
in  Chesapeake  Bay. 

4.  Rice  and  cotton  are  leading  productions  in 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

5.  Immense  forests  of  pitch  pine  trees  in  North 
Carolina  yield  large  supplies  of  turpentine,  pitch, 
tar,  and  resin. 

What  is  turpentine?  Resin?  Pitch?  Tar?  What  are 
they  sometimes  called? 

6.  Name  four  things  that  distinguish  Florida. 

7.  Name  the  exports  of  the  southern  states  of 
the  Atlantic  Slope. 

8.  Why  should  these  states  import  manufact- 
ured goods  ?  Why  should  they  not  import  cotton? 
Wool?     Leather? 

9.  Name  the  leading  cities  of  these  states. 


THE    GREAT    CENTRAL    PLAIN. 

I .   Position — Extent — Surface — Soil — 
Climate. 

You  have  already  learned  that  the  Great  Cen- 
tral Plain  which  we  are  now  to  study  lies  between 
the  Appalachian  Mountains  on  the  east  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  and  that  it  extends 
north  and  south  between  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  From  the  crest  of 
one  of  these  mountain  ranges  to  the  crest  of  the 
other  this  plain  takes  up  more  than  half  the  coun- 
try occupied  by  the  whole  United  States  except 
Alaska. 

You  must  not  think,  because  it  is  called  a  plain, 
that  this  great  region  is  all  one  level  stretch  of 
country.     While  it  has  mostly  a  level  surface,  you 


will  see  that  its  eastern  side,  where  it  rises  up  into 
the  Appalachian  Mountains,  must  be  mountainous, 
and  so  must  be  the  western  side  where  it  runs  up 
the  sides  of  the  still  higher  Rocky  Mountains. 
Besides  this,  a  line  of  low,  scattered  mountains 
runs  east  and  west  through  the  southern  part  of 
the  plain,  along  the  northern  border  of  Alabama, 
Mississippi,  Arkansas,  and  into  the  state  of  Mis- 
souri. 

Because  nearly  all  the  country  of  this  plain 
inclines  toward  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  it  is  some- 
times called  the  Gulf  Slope.  It  is  also  frequently 
spoken  of  as  the  Mississippi  Valley,  because  it  is 
made  up  of  slopes,  nearly  all  of  which  incline 
toward  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tributaries. 

Nearly  all  the  level  country  north  of  the  south- 
em  line  of  Kansas,  Missouri,  and  Kentucky  is 
prairie,  that  is,  country  with  a  grassy  turf  and 
without  trees. 

The  soil  throughout  nearly  the  entire  extent  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley  and  the  states  lying  on  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  is  the  richest  in  the  United  States. 
The  climate,  like  that  of  the  Atlantic  Slope,  is 
warm  and  winterless  in  the  south,  with  ver>'  heavy 
rainfalls,  growing  colder  toward  the  north  as  we 
approach  the  Canadian  line. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  Bound  the  Great  Central  Plain.  How 
does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  rest  of  the  United 
States  except  Alaska  ? 

2.  This  region  is  mostly  level,  but  is  mount- 
ainous on  the  east  and  west  borders.  Low  mount- 
ains cross  the  southern  part. 

3.  What  other  names  are  sometimes  given  to 
the  Great  Central  Plain?  Why  is  it  sometimes 
called  the  Gulf  Slope?  Why,  sometimes,  the 
Mississippi  Valley? 

4.  What  is  a  prairie?  What  part  of  this  Great 
Plain  is  prairie? 


56 


THE   UNITED  STATES. 


5.  What  can  you  say  of  the  soil  of  the  Great  Central  Plain  ? 
The  climate  ? 


II.  Productions. 
For  Reading: 

In  looking  at  the  productions  of  the  Great  Cen- 
tral Plain,  let  us  begin  with  those  that  were  there 
before  white  men  came.  We  shall  find  rich  mines 
of  coal  and  iron  all  along  the  western  side  of  the 
Alleghany  Mountains,  especially  in  western  Penn- 
sylvania, for  we  must  not  forget  that  a  part  of 
Pennsylvania  is  in  the  Central  Plain.  We  shall 
find  the  great  coal  beds  extending  over  a  large 
part  of  Ohio,  Kentucky,  Indiana,  and  Illinois; 
and  coal  and  iron  in  large  quantities  in  Missouri. 

Copper  is  found  along  the  southern  coast  of 
Lake  Superior. 

Large  quantities  of  lead  are  found  in  a  consid- 
erable region  of  country  where  Illinois,  Wiscon- 
sin, and  Iowa  come  together;  also  in  Missouri, 
southern  Kansas,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
The  richest  mines  of  lead  are  in  the  mountains 
of  southern  Colorado. 


Salt  is  found  in  many  places. 

The  eastern  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  con- 
tain rich  mines  of  gold  and  silver. 

Besides  the  minerals  that  abound,  there  are, 
along  the  sides  of  the  eastern  mountain  ranges, 
and  for  scores  of  miles  among  the  hills  that  extend 
from  the  mountains  into  the  low  land,  and  on 
much  of  the  low  land  itself,  fine  forests  of  chest- 
nut, cherry,  and  walnut  trees,  so  greatly  prized 
for  the  manufacture  of  household  furniture. 

Away  to  the  north,  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  Minnesota,  extensive  forests  of  pine  supply 
lumber  for  dwellings,  stores,  warehouses,  and 
factories. 

In  the  western  part  of  this  plain,  wherever  the 
prairies  have  not  been  plowed  for  cultivation,  a 
tall  and  nutritious  wild  grass  grows,  furnishing 
pasture  for  thousands  of  cattle  and  horses  in  the 
summer  and  hay  for  them  in  the  winter  months. 

But  the  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of  this  region 
is  found  in  the  crops  raised  by  tilling  the  soil.  It 
is  easy  to  make  farms,  because  so  many  thou- 
sands of  miles  are  prairie  land,  and  all  ready  for 


THE  GREAT  CENTRAL  PLAIN. 


57 


place  to  cotton  fields  and  sugar 
plantations,  the  chief  source  of 
the  wealth  of  this  section. 

Texas,  the  most  southern 
and  the  largest  state  in  the 
Union,  is  most  noted  for  its 
immense  herds  of  cattle. 


the  plow.     Corn  is  the  principal  grain  and  yields 

large  crops  all  the  way  from  north  to  south.     It 

is  also  the   chief  grain   used   to 

fatten    cattle    and   hogs,    which, 

with     horses     and     mules,     are 

raised   in   great   numbers   in  all 

parts  of  this  plain.     Kentucky  is 

the   most   famous    state    in    the 

Union  for  its  fine  breeds  of  horses. 

North  of  the  line  of  the  Ohio 
River  great  crops  of  wheat  are 
raised,  Dakota  and  Minnesota 
being  the  most  important  wheat- 
growing  states. 

This  northern  section  is  also 
rich  in  all  the  orchard  fruits  of  the  Temperate 
Zone — apples,  peaches,  cherries,  plums,  and  pears 
— as  well  as  in  the  common  grains,  hay,  and  veg- 
etables, such  as  oats,  rye,  barley,  potatoes,  beets, 
turnips,  etc. 

Sheep  and  wool,  also,  add  much  to  the  wealth 
of  this  section. 

As  we  go  south,  into  the  warmer  and  moister 
climate,  we  shall  find,  in  the  states  that  border 
on  the  gulf,  the  wheat  fields  and  orchards  giving 


■For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  Rich  mines  of  iron, 
coal,  copper,  lead,  and  silver 
are  found  in  different  parts  of 
the  Great  Central  Plain.  Look 
at  the  map  and  tell  where  each  is 
found.  Write  three  uses  of  lead. 
2.  Cherry,  chestnut,  and  walnut  trees  are  found 
in  the  eastern  part  of  this  plain,  and  pine  forests 


Cotton  Field. 

in  the  north.      Which  for  furniture  ?     Which  for 
building  ? 

3.  A  rich  wild  grass  grows  in  the  prairies  that 
have  not  been  plowed. 

4.  Corn  is  the  principal  grain,  and  yields  well 
everywhere  from  north  to  south.  What  is  its 
chief  use.^ 

5.  Cattle,  hogs,  horses,  and  mules  are  raised  in 


58 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


great  numbers  in  all  parts  of  the  Great  Central 
Plain.  Kentucky  is  especially  famous  for  its 
horses, 

6.  North  of  the  line  of  the  Ohio  River  large 
crops  of  wheat  and  other  common  grains,  orchard 
fruits,  and  vegetables  are  raised.  Dakota  and 
Minnesota  are  the  great  wheat-growing  states. 
Sheep  and  wool  are  sources  of  large  wealth. 

7.  In  the  states  on  the  gulf,  ^cotton  and  sugar 
are  the  chief  productions.  Texas  has  immense 
herds  of  cattle. 


III.   Occupations — Cities. 
For  Reading: 

When  we  know  the  productions  of  a  country 
we  can  tell  the  occupations  of  the  people,  can  we 
not?  What,  then,  would  you  say  the  people  of 
this  Great  Central  Plain  are  doing  ?  If  you  have 
read  attentively  what  has  been  told  of  its  produc- 
tions your  answer  will  be:  Mining  for  coal,  iron, 
copper,  lead,  gold,  and  silver;  timber  cutting  for 
lumber  to  make  furniture,  and  other  lumber  to 
build  houses;  hay  cutting  on  the  prairies  and  the 
meadows;  grain  farming;  raising  stock;  raising 
fruit;  and  growing  cotton  and  sugar. 

What  is  done  with  all  this  vast  production? 
The  iron  is  made  into  locomotives,  steam  engines, 
farming  tools,  and  countless  other  things;  the 
lumber  is  worked  into  furniture  and  buildings; 
the  cattle  and  hogs  are  made  into  beef  and  pork; 
the  milk  into  butter  and  cheese;  the  wheat  into 
flour;  the  cotton  and  wool  into  cloth — and  this 
gives  for  thousands  of  people  a  new  business,  the 
business  of  manufacturing. 

Can  the  people  who  live  in  this  region  use  so 
much?  And  if  not,  what  will  they  do  with 
their  surplus  ?  And  do  they  need  nothing  except 
what  they  raise  and  manufacture?  If  they  do, 
how   are  they   to  get  it?     When  we  think  of 


these  questions  we  shall  find  a  great  call  for  men 
to  engage  in  trade,  or  commerce.  Is  commerce 
easy  in  this  country  ?  Look  on  the  map  and  see. 
See  that  chain  of  great  lakes  at  the  north  which 
ships  and  steamers  may  traverse  through  the  St. 
Lawrence  River  and  the  canals  to  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

See  the  long  Mississippi  River,  large  enough 
for  the  passage  of  steamers  from  the  gulf  almost 
to  Canada;  and  the  Missouri  River,  that  can  take 
them  into  the  northwest;  and  the  Ohio,  the  Ar- 
kansas, and  the  Red  Rivers,  each  furnishing  a 
channel  for  multitudes  of  these  craft  of  commerce. 

As  the  country  has  a  level  surface,  railroads  are 
easily  built,  and  you  will  find  them  everj' where 
throughout  this  region,  where  there  is  produce  to 
be  taken  to  market. 

You  will  remember  that  great  cities  are  built 
up  by  commerce  and  manufactures,  and,  therefore, 
when  studying  the  map,  you  found  in  this  rich 
country,  on  the  Mississippi,  the  Ohio,  and  the 
Missouri  Rivers,  and  on  the  Great  Lakes,  some 
of  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  cities  of  the 
United  States. 

Chicago  is  the  largest  grain  and  pork  market 
in  the  world.  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis  are  noted 
for  their  great  wealth,  manufactures,  and  com- 
merce. St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  are  extensive 
milling  and  flouring  cities.  Kansas  City  is  dis- 
tinguished for  its  beef  packing,  and  Denver  is  the 
commercial  center  of  the  gold  and  silver  region. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  Make  a  list  of  the  chief  occupations  of 
the  people  of  the  Great  Central  Plain. 

2 .  The  chief  manufactures  are  locomotives,  farm 
machinery,  hardware,  furniture,  beef  and  pork, 
butter  and  cheese,  flour,  and  woolen  goods. 

3.  The  Great  Lakes,  long,  navigable  rivers,  and 


THE  GREAT  PLATEAU  REGION. 


59 


numerous  railroads  make  the  Central  Plain  an 
important  commercial  region.  Grain,  flour,  beef, 
pork,  cattle,  horses,  butter  and  cheese,  and  woolen 
goods  are  the  chief  exports. 

4.  Name  the  cities  of  this  region  mentioned  in 
the  map  questions  and  tell  where  they  are  located. 
For  what  is  Chicago  distinguished?  Cincinnati 
and  St.  lyouis  ?  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis  ?  Kan- 
sas City?     Denver? 


THE    GREAT    PLATEAU    REGION. 
For  Reading: 

The  region  that  we  are  now  to  study  is  that 
lying  between  the  Rocky  and  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  The  country,  which  is  wild  and 
mountainous,  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  scenerj'^, 
and  abounds  in  great  table  lands, ^  or  plateaus. 

In  Colorado  there  are  four  famous  elevated  nat- 
ural parks,  surrounded  by  high  mountains  which 
have  not  less  than  200  peaks  reaching  a  height 
of  two  and  a  half  miles.  Some  of  these  parks 
are  as  large  as  the  state  of  New  Jersey. 

Near  the  center  of  this  division  lies  a  great 
basin  whose  rivers  either  sink  into  the  soil  or  flow 
into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet.  Of  these  rivers 
the  Humboldt,  in  Nevada,  is  the  most  important, 
and  of  the  lakes.  Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah,  is  the 
largest.  Salt  Lake  City,  with  streams  of  pure 
mountain  water  running  constantly  along  the 
sides  of  its  wide,  clean  streets,  stands  near  this 
lake. 

But  while  the  country"  is  generally  mountainous, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  there  are  some  very 
prett3'  and  fertile  valleys  and  some  broad  and  pro- 
ductive plains.  Much  of  Utah  and  eastern  Idaho 
ofiers  ver>'  good  farming  land,  and  is  quite  well 
cultivated.  This  land  is  usually  supplied  with 
moisture  by  carrying  water  upon  it  through  ditches 
cut  from  streams  that  flow  through  the  country. 

1  Reading  Hour«  Scribner's  Geographical  Reader,  pp.  66-70,  On  the 
Table  I,and. 


Templh  and  Taberxacle,  S\lt  I,^k 


In  eastern  Washington  are  wide  stretches  of 
plain,  upon  which  large  crops  of  wheat  are  annu- 
ally raised.  Much  of  the  country  is  also  well 
adapted  to  grazing,  and  cattle  raising  is  an  im- 
portant industry. 

The  great  wealth  of  the  Plateau  Region,  how- 
ever, is  in  its  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  the  richest 
and  most  extensive  in  the  world.  The  richest  sil- 
ver mines  ever  known  have  been  found  at  Virginia 
City,  Nevada.  A  little  boy  called  this  region  the 
"Natural  National  Bank  of  the  United  States." 


'For  Recitation: 

1 .  What  is  the  country  between  the  Rocky  and 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  called?  What  is  a 
plateau  ? 

2.  Four  great  natural  parks  are  found  in  the 
plateau  region  of  Colorado. 

3.  Near  the  center  of  the  Great  Plateau  Region 
lies  a  basin  whose  rivers  sink  into  the  ground  or 
flow  into  lakes  that  have  no  outlet. 

4.  Small  strips  of  fertile  land  are  found  in  this 
region.  Where?  There  is  also  much  good  graz- 
ing country.     To  what  industry  does  it  give  rise? 

5.  In  what  does  the  chief  wealth  of  this  coun- 


6o 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


try  consist  ?     What  of  the  mines  at  Virginia  City  ? 
What  did  a  httle  boy  call  the  Plateau  Region  ? 


THE     PACIFIC    SLOPE. 

I.  Position — Surface — Climate — Coast 
Line — Seaports. 

For  Reading: 

The  states  of  this  division  are  Oregon,  Wash- 
ington, and  California.  A  part  of  each  of  these 
states  lies  in  the  great  interior  region  that  we  have 
just  studied,  but  the  richest  and  most  populous 
portions  are  found  west  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains. 

Three  celebrated  farming  valleys  lie  in  this 
division;  the  valley  of  Pii'get  Sound,  at  the  ex- 
treme north  in  Washington ;  further  south,  in 
Oregon,  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Will  Sm'ette;  and 
still  further  south  the  California  Basin,  or  the  val- 
ley of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers. 

The  climate  of  these  states  does  not  vary  so 
much  from  north  to  south  as  that  of  the  Atlantic 
states.  From  west  to  east,  however,  there  is  con- 
siderable variation  in  moisture,  much  more  rain 
falling  near  the  coast  than  farther  inland,  and 
especially  east  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

The  coast  line  of  these  states  does  not  give 
many  good  harbors.  San  Francisco  Bay,  on 
whose  shores  the  great  city  of  San  Francisco 
stands,  is  the  best  of  these,  and  one  of  the  best 
in  the  world.  Puget  Sound  also  affords  good 
harborage,  Tacoma  and  Seattle  being  the  princi- 
pal ports;  and  a  fine  harbor  is  found  in  San  Diego 
Bay.  The  Columbia  River  carries  ocean  steamers 
about  I  GO  miles  into  the  state  of  Oregon.  These 
steamers  find  harbor  at  the  city  of  Portland,  on  the 
Willamette  River,  twelve  miles  from  its  mouth. 


For  Recitation: 

I.   I.  What   states   are   found   in   the   Pacific 
Slope?     In  what  other  division  do  they  partly  lie ? 


In  which  division  are  the  richest  and  most  pop- 
ulous portions  of  these  states  ? 

2.  Name  the  three  great  farming  valleys  of  this 
division.     Tell  where  each  lies. 

3.  The  climate  varies  less  from  north  to  south 
than  in  the  states  of  the  Atlantic  Slope.  More 
rain  falls  near  the  coast  than  farther  inland. 

4.  What  of  the  coast  line?  Name  the  three 
harbors  on  the  coast  and  their  ports.  Where  is 
Portland  harbor?     How  far  from  the  seacoast? 


II.    Productions — Manufactures — Com- 
merce. 

For  Reading: 

The  mineral  wealth  of  this  region  is  very  great. 
The  mountains  of  eastern  and  southern  California 
yield  millions  of  dollars  in  gold  and  silver  every 
year,  while  the  coal  mines  along  the  shores  of 
Puget  Sound  supply  the  cities  and  manufactories 
of  the  Pacific  states  with  fuel. 

The  forests  of  western  Washington,  bordering 
on  Puget  Sound,  are  the  most  valuable  in  the 
United  States,  furnishing  timber  for  masts  and 
spars  of  ships.  Very  valuable  forests  of  fir  and 
pine  are  also  found  in  Oregon,  and  of  redwood 
and  pine  in  California. 

In  farm  products  Oregon  and  Washington  are 
chiefly  distinguished  for  the  large  quantity  and 
excellent  quality  of  wheat  raised,  though  the  com- 
mon orchard  fruits  yield  well  and  are  of  fine  qual- 
ity. Oregon  apples  are  much  sought  in  California 
markets. 

California  is  by  far  the  richest  of  the  states  of 
this  division  in  the  products  of  the  soil.  It  is 
famous  throughout  this  country  and  Europe  for 
its  wheat,  orchard  fruits,  grapes,  oranges,  limes, 
and  olives. 

Cattle  and  sheep  raising  are  important  indus- 
tries in  California  and  Oregon,   the  wool  crop 


PACIFIC  SLOPE— ALASKA. 


6i 


especially  giving  these  states  great  prominence. 
Oregon  is  famous  also  for  its  salmon  fisheries. 
More  salmon  are  caught  in  the  Columbia  River 
than  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 

In  California  much  attention  is  given  to  manu- 
factures, especially  to  the  manufacture  of  wines, 
raisins,  flour,  woolen  cloth,  canned  and  dried 
fruits,  and  refined  sugars. 

The  exports  of  this  region  will  be  seen  from  its 
productions.  From  the  ports  of  the  north  the 
exports  are  wool,  ship  timber,  and  canned  goods — 
chiefly  salmon ;  from  San  Francisco  go  wheat, 
flour,  wines,  lumber,  woolen  goods,  fresh,  dried, 
and  canned  fruits. 

The  imports  through  San  Francisco  from  China, 
Japan,  and  Europe  are  very  great.  Only  three 
cities  in  the  United  States  have  a  larger  foreign 
commerce. 


For  Recitation: 

II.   I.  Mines — Gold  and  silver,  coal. 

2.  Forests — Where?     What? 

3.  Washington  and  Oregon — Farm  products. 

4.  California — Farm  products. 

5.  Cattle  and  sheep.     Wool.     Fisheries. 

6.  Name  the  manufactures  of  California. 

7.  Name  the  exports  from  the  northern  ports 
of  this  division.     From  the  southern. 

8.  How  does  San  Francisco  rank  as  a  commer- 
cial city  ? 

ALASKA. 

For  Reading: 

Though  Alaska  is  neither  a  state  nor  a  terri- 
tory, we  must  not  forget  that  it  is  now  the  prop- 
erty of  the  United  States.  It  formerly  belonged 
to  Russia,  and  is  about  one  sixth  the  size  of  the 
United  States. 


One  third  of  Alaska  is  in  the  Frigid  Zone.     The 
part  that  lies  in  the  Arctic  Slope  consists  of  frozen 


^^^^^^^^^rf 

^^^^^^.^         ^H 

^=^^*iSs5s^Jfc^ 

t  ~~         ^^^^S^^^^^H^^Bh^^^^^Et^^^^^^^^ 

An  Alaskan  Grave. 

swamps ;  that  part  bordering  on  the  Pacific  Ocean 
has  a  mild  and  moist  climate.  The  Yukon  River, 
in  Alaska,  is  one  of  the  longest  in  the  United 
States,  and  its  sides  are  covered  with  evergreen 
forests. 

The  chief  seal  fisheries  of  the  world  are  on  the 
islands  of  Alaska.  The  seals  are  killed  by  club- 
bing them  on  the  head.  The  skins  taken  are 
from  the  young  males  onl}'.  The  fur  of  the  seal 
is  of  a  dark  gray  color,  and  is  dyed  before  being 
made  into  clothing.  There  are  but  few  white 
people  in  Alaska.  Most  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Indians. 


For  Recitation: 

1 .  Alaska  formerly  belonged  to  Russia,  and  is 
about  one  sixth  as  large  as  the  United  States. 

2.  The  climate  along  the  Pacific  Ocean  is  mild 
and  moist.  The  Yukon  River  is  one  of  the  longest 
in  the  United  States. 


62 


THE  UNITED  STATES. 


3.  Seal  fishing  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
people  of  Alaska,  who  are  mostly  Indians. 


REVIEW     QUESTIONS. 

North  America. 

1.  Name  the  four  Natural  Divisions  of  North  America. 
Give  the  location  of  each,  beginning  with  the  eastern 
division.  Into  what  two  slopes  is  the  Great  Central 
Plain  divided?  By  what  is  it  divided?  Where  is  the 
■chain  of  Great  Lakes  located? 

2.  Who  inhabited  North  America  before  the  European 
.■settlers?  Give  the  location  of  each  class  of  the  original 
inhabitants.  How  long  ago  were  the  first  European  set- 
tlements made?  Where,  in  North  America,  is  the  French 
language  chiefly  spoken?  Where  does  the  English  lan- 
guage prevail?     The  Spanish? 

3.  In  what  part  of  North  America  are  iron  and  coal 
chiefly  found?  What  is  the  advantage  of  their  being 
found  near  together?  Where  shall  we  find  copper  and 
lead?  Where  are  the  gold  and  silver  and  quicksilver 
mines?  What  is  the  advantage  in  finding  gold  and 
<juicksilver  near  together? 

4.  Name  the  largest  three  islands  off  the  northeastern   j 
•coast  of  North  America.      Where  are  the  West   India 
Islands?     Name  the  four  most  important  of  these  islands. 

United  States. 
I.  What  are  the  four  Natural  Divisions  of  the  United 
^States  ?  What  difierence  in  the  occupations  of  the  people 
north  and  south  in  the  Atlantic  Slope?  Why  should  this 
-difference  exist?  What  difference  in  occupations  north 
.and  south  in  the  Great  Central  Plain?  Why?  What 
makes  commerce  easy  in  this  Plain?  In  which  part  of 
Ihe  Plain  are  the  commercial  facilities  greatest? 


2.  Name  two  things  that  chiefly  distinguish  the  Great 
Plateau  Region. 

3.  Name  the  three  largest  farming  valleys  of  the  Pacific 
Slope?  Where  is  each  located?  Name  the  best  three 
harbors  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  Where  are  gold  and  silver 
chiefly  found?  Coal?  Salmon?  What  are  the  chief 
exports  of  this  region? 

Thought  Questions. — Why  should  Minneapolis, 
rather  than  New  Orleans,  be  distinguished  for  the  num- 
ber of  its  flouring  mills?  Why  Chicago  rather  than 
Boston  for  its  pork  and  beef  packing?  Why  Kansas 
City  rather  than  Denver?  Why  should  San  Francisco 
rather  than  Chicago  or  St.  Louis  have  a  United  States 
mint? 


Topical  Review  of  the  United  States. 

Write,  in  your  own  language,  all  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  the  United  States  that  you  know,  using, 
as  guides,  the  following  topics: 


Position. 
Extent. 

Mountain  Systems. 

Drainage. 

(Slopes,  Lakes,  and 
Rivers.) 

Climate. 


People. 
Products. 

(Mineral,  Vegetable,  and 
Animal.) 

Occupations. 

(Farming,  Manufacturing, 
Mining,  Commerce.) 

States. 

Cities  and  Towns. 

(Location,  for  what  noted, 
etc.) 


CALIFORNIA. 


•Questions  on  the  Picture  of  California. 

I.  The  Great  Valley  of  Northern  California. 
Name  the  great  valley  of  Northern  California.  In  what 
direction  is  it  longest?  What  mountains  bound  it  on  the 
east?  What  on  the  west?  What  great  mountain  stands 
^\.  its  northern  extremity?    What  mountain  pass  opens 


from  it  into  Southern  California?  Name  the  two  chief 
rivers  that  flow  through  this  valley.  Describe  them. 
Describe  the  Pitt  River.  The  American  River.  The 
Merced  River.  Beginning  at  the  north,  name  the  towns 
marked  on  the  picture  in  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joa- 
quin Valley. 
2.  Smaller  Valleys. — Name  the  three  smaller  val- 


CALIFORNIA. 


63 


^41 


^^ast\.vt 


San  Franciscoi 


Monterey, 


leys  in  the  Coast 
Range  Mountains 
north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco Bay.     In  what 
direction  does  each  ex- 
tend?    Name   the   three 
-valleys  of  this  range  south 
of  San   Francisco  Bay.     In 
what  direction  does  each  ex- 
tend?     Name    the     towns     in 
Napa  Valley.     Santa  Rosa  Val- 
ley.   Santa  Clara  Valley.     Salinas 
Valley. 


ifornia    mainly  extend?      In    which   of 
these  is  Los  Angeles  located?    Pasa- 
dena?     San  Bernardino?     Anaheim 
(an'ahime)?     Santa  Ana?     What 
desert   lies  east  of  the    Coast 
Range  of  mountains?    What 
desert    at    the    southern 
end  of  the  state? 

5.  Mountain  Ranges. 
Name  two  mountain 
peaks  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada Range.  In  what 
part  of  the  range?  Two 
of  the  Coast  Range.  In 
what  part? 

6.  Lakes. — Name  and 
locate  the  lakes  of  the 
Great  Central  Valley.  Of 
the  Sierra  Nevada  Mount- 
ains. 


i^i. 


i: 


San  Ijuis  Bay 


W^m, 


Santa  Barbara^ 
San  Bueiiaventun 


,^0* 


3.  Resorts. 
The  Gey'sers? 


-Where  is  Lake  Ta  hoe'? 
Yo  semd  te  Valley? 


iPvttt^ 


4.  Southern  California. — Name  the  five  principal 
valleys  of  Southern  California,  beginning  with  the  Santa    ^^ 
Ma  r?a.     In  what  direction  do  the  valleys  of  Southern  Cal-^ 

Abbreviations.— N.  V.,  Napa  Valley;  S.  V.,  Sonoma  Valley;  S.  B.,  Suisun 
Bay;  S.  P.,  San  Pablo  Bay;  S.  R.,  Santa  Rosa. 


San  Diego  Bay^ 


7. 


64 


CALIFORNIA. 


NORTHERN    CALIFORNIA— NATURAL    FEAT- 
URES. 

I.  The  Great  Valley  and  its  Mountain 
Boundaries. 

For  Reading: 

We  have  all  seen  a  part  of  the  state  of  Cali- 
fornia, but  no  one  of  us  has  seen  the  whole  of  it. 
If  we  were  to  go  up  in  a  balloon  from  one  of  the 
little  valleys  nestled  in  the  mountains  that  extend 
along  the  eastern  side  of  the  state,  all  the  objects 
below  us  would  grow  smaller  and  smaller  as  we 
ascend,  the  boys  and  girls  would  look  no  bigger 
than  ants,  and  the  school  house  about  as  large  as 
a  dog  kennel.  Soon  we  should  be  able  to  see 
beyond  the  mountains  surrounding  our  valley. 
Hundreds  of  other  mountains  would  come  into 
view  with  ravines  and  small  fertile  valleys  between 
them,  and  towns  and  mines  on  their  sides. 

Now,  if  an  east  wind  should  spring  up,  our 
balloon  would  move  westward,  carrying  us  out 
over  the  center  of  a  great  valley.  Here,  if  we 
could  go  high  enough  and  see  far  enough,  we 
could  get  a  view  of  the  whole  of  the  northern 
part  of  the  state.  We  should  see  below  us  a  val- 
ley more  than  fifty  miles  wide  from  east  to  west, 
and  stretching  hundreds  of  miles  north  and  south. 
This  valley  is  so  large  that  five  of  the  smallest  of 
the  United  States  could  lie  in  it  side  by  side.  The 
whole  northern  part  of  the  state  would  now  look 
something  as  you  see  it  in  the  picture  on  the  pre- 
ceding page — made  up  of  high  and  low  land, 
with  lakes  and  rivers  sparkling  in  all  directions. 

Extending  along  the  whole  length  of  the  valley 
on  the  east  we  should  see  the  high  range  of 
mountains  from  among  which  our  balloon  first 
rose.  Another  range  would  be  seen  to  bound 
the  valley  on  the  west.  Both  ranges  curve 
toward  each  other  at  the  north.  Mount  Shasta 
seeming  to  hold  them  together  where  they  meet. 


In  the  south  they  bend  together,  too,  and 
would  meet,  but  for  narrow  passes  which  seem  to 
be  gates  to  let  people  out  of  the  valley  into  the 
country  beyond. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  A  great  valley  50  miles  wide  from  east 
to  west  and  about  400  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  lies  in  the  central  part  of  California. 

2.  A  long  chain  of  mountains  bounds  this  val- 
ley on  the  east  and  another  on  the  west. 

3.  At  the  north  these  two  chains  of  mountains 
come  together  in  Mount  Shasta. 

4.  At  the  south  they  nearly  meet,  leaving  only 
narrow  passes  through  them. 


II.  The  Rivers  of  the  Great  Valley. 
For  Reading: 

With  our  balloon  hanging  over  the  center  of 
this  great  valley  we  may  look  toward  the  north 
more  than  200  miles  away  and  see  where  the 
Sacramento  River  rises  in  a  big  spring  not  far 
from  the  foot  of  Mount  Shasta,  and  where  it  is 
joined  by  the  Pitt  River,  which  winds  down  from 
the  northeast  corner  of  the  state. 

Looking  north  and  south  we  should  see,  also,  a 
line  of  water  all  through  the  middle  of  the  great 
valley  below  us.  At  first  it  might  be  mistaken 
for  one  stream,  but  looking  carefully  we  should 
see  that  a  few  miles  north  of  the  center  of  the 
valley  the  Sacramento  makes  a  turn  toward  the 
west,  and  that  what  at  first  seemed  to  be  a 
part  of  it  is  really  a  separate  stream  flowing 
northward  from  the  mountains  of  the  south. 

This  stream  from  the  south  is  the  great  San 
Joaquin  River,  and  we  may  observe  that  just 
before  it  reaches  the  Sacramento  it,  too,  turns  off 


MOUNTAINS  AND  SMALLER   VALLEYS. 


65 


toward  the  west,  and  that  both  rivers  are  lost  in  a 
narrow  bay  called  the  Suisun.  The  great  valley 
is  named  for  these  rivers — The  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  Valley^ 

All  along  the  valley  many  small  rivers  would 
be  seen  flowing  into  these  large  ones,  but  most 
of  them  come  down  from  the  mountains  on  the 
eastern  side. 

It  is  a  beautiful  sight  to  see  the  yellow  grain 
fields  all  through  this  valley,  dotted  with  green 
orchards  and  vineyards  and  bordered  with  forests 
on  the  mountain  sides. 

This  is  the  richest  farming  land  in  the  world, 
and  gives  homes  and  work  to  thousands  of  happy, 
busy  people. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  The  Sacramento  River  starts  from  a 
spring  near  the  foot  of  Mount  Shasta,  and  flows 
south  through  the  center  of  the  great  valley  of 
California. 

2.  The  Pitt  River  comes  into  the  Sacramento 
near  its  source  from  the  northeastern  part  of  the 
state. 

3.  The  San  Joaquin  River  starts  from  the 
mountains  in  the  southern  part  of  the  valley  and 
flows  north  till  it  almost  meets  the  Sacramento, 
when  they  both  turn  west  and  flow  into  Suisun 
Bay. 

4.  Many  small  rivers  flow  into  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin,  most  of  them  coming  down 
from  the  mountains  on  the  eastern  side. 

5.  This  valley  contains  the  richest  farming  land 
in  the  world. 


III.  The  Mountains  and  Smaller  Valleys. 
For  Reading: 

A  view  of  the  mountains  and  the  small  valleys 


that  lie  among  them  would  be  very  interesting, 
as  well  as  the  view  of  the  great  valley  we  have 
just  seen.  We  should  find  the  eastern  range  of 
mountains  much  higher  and  rougher  than  the 
western.  It  is  called  the  Sierra  Nevada  Range. 
The  highest  group  of  mountains  in  the  state  is  in 
this  chain,  almost  east  of  Lake  Tulare.  Mount 
Whitney  and  Mount  Tyndall  are  each  nearly 
three  miles  high.  Many  peaks  in  the  range  are 
covered  with  snow,  and  along  the  sides  of  the 
mountains,  below  the  snow  level,  stand  magnifi- 
cent forests.  Along  its  whole  length  the  range 
is  spangled  with  beautiful  lakes. 

The  western  chain  is  called  the  Coast  Range, 
because  it  lies  along  the  seashore.  About  mid- 
way from  north  to  south  the  ocean  breaks  through 
this  range  and  cuts  a  channel,  which  permits  the 
waters  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers 
to  escape. 

This  opening  is  called  the  Golden  Gate,  and 
the  water  that  comes  through  makes  the  San 
Francisco,  San  Pablo,  and  Suisun  Bays. 

North  of  these  bays,  instead  of  running  on  as 
one  chain,  the  Coast  Range  splits  apart  into  sev- 
eral little  rows  running  nearly  north  and  south, 
with  long,  narrow  valleys  between  them.  The 
Santa  Rosa,  Sonoma,  and  Napa  Valleys  are  three 
rich  valleys  lying  north  and  south  among  these 
mountains. 

South  of  these  bays  the  mountains  are  split 
apart  in  the  same  way,  making  the  Salinas,  the 
Santa  Clara,  and  the  Livermore  Valleys. 

The  most  noted  mountains  in  this  range  are 
Mount  Diablo  and  Mount  Hamilton. 

» 

For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  The  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  lie  on 
the  eastern  side  of  the  state,  and  are  higher  and 
rougher  than  the  western  chain.  How  high  are 
Mount  Tyndall  and  Mount  Whitney  ? 


66 


CALIFORNIA. 


2.  Fine  forests  stand  on  the  sides,  and  many 
beautiful  lakes  lie  in  the  hollows  of  this  range. 

3.  The  mountain  chain  along  the  seashore  is 
called  the  Coast  Range. 

4.  The  sea  breaks  through  the  Coast  Range 
and  spreads  out  into  broad  inland  bays, 

5.  The  opening  through  which  the  sea  breaks 
is  called  the  Golden  Gate,  and  the  larger  bays  are 
named  San  Francisco  and  San  Pablo. 

6.  Name  three  valleys  that  lie  between  the 
rows  of  the  Coast  Range  on  the  northern  side  of 
these  bays.  Three  on  the  southern  side.  Name 
the  most  noted  mountains  of  this  range. 


SOUTHERN    CALIFORNIA. 

I.  Coast  Range  and  Deserts. 
For  Reading: 

Now  let  us  imagine  ourselves  hovering  in  a  bal- 
loon over  Mount  San  Bernardino — the  highest 
mountain  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state.  We 
shall  see  a  very  different  view  from  the  one  in  the 
north. 

South  of  the  passes  that  lead  into  Southern 
California  but  one  high  range  of  mountains  ap- 
pears, although  much  of  the  country  is  mount- 
ainous. 

This  range  seems  to  be  a  continuation  of  the 
Coast  Range,  though  it  soon  leaves  the  coast  and 
turns  toward  the  southeast  corner  of  the  state. 
The  line  of  the  coast  here  changes  its  direction, 
curving  also  toward  the  southeast.  Look  at  the 
pichire  and  you  will  see  the  change.  Different 
parts  of  this  mountain  range  have  different  names, 
but  the  ranges  of  San  Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino 
are  the  most  important  of  these  divisions. 

Northeast  of  this  range  we  look  upon  one  of  the 
most  cheerless  parts  of  the  earth's  surface — the 
Mohave  Desert.     This  desert  extends  eastward 


far  beyond  the  eastern  edge  of  California,  and 
northward  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains  as  far  as  Lake  Mono,  nearly 
opposite  the  center  of  the  Great  Valley — a  deso- 
late, barren  region,  bearing  occasional  ridges  of 
high  rocky  peaks,  called  the  Lost  Mountains. 

West  of  this  mountain  chain,  extending  in  a. 
line  from  Mount  San  Bernardino  to  the  southeast 
corner  of  the  state,  we  may  see  a  long,  narrow 
tract  of  land  in  some  places  three  hundred  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  sea.  This  tract  is  known 
as  the  Colorado  Desert.  The  Gulf  of  California 
once  filled  the  basin,  and  this  barren  hollow  is 
the  dry  bed  left  by  the  water. 


II.  West  of  the  Coast  Range. 

For  Reading: 

West  of  the  Coast  Range  and  the  Colorado 
Desert  there  are  many  fertile  valleys  with  beau- 
tiful mesas  between  them. 

The  direction  of  these  valleys  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  valleys  in  the  Coast  Range  at 
the  north,  for,  as  you  see  in  the  picture,  instead  of 
running  north  and  south  with  the  great  mountain 
chain,  like  the  northern  valleys,  they  lie  in  an 
east  and  west  direction,  extending  toward  the  sea 
nearly  at  right  angles  with  the  principal  mountain 
chain.  Of  course  you  must  understand  that  there  , 
are  some  low  mountain  ranges  running  east  and 
west,  or  there  could  be  no  east  and  west  valleys. 

The  most  northerly  of  these  valleys  is  the  one 
drained  by  the  Santa  Maria  River.  South  of  this 
valley  are  the  valleys  drained  by  the  Santa  Inez 
and  Santa  Clara.  These  valleys  slope  to  the 
ocean  in  a  line  almost  directly  westward. 

Still  further  south  are  the  valleys  drained  by 
the  San  Gabriel  and  the  Santa  Ana,  whose  waters 
flow  to  the  sea  by  southwesterly  courses. 

All  through  Southern  California,  to  the  south- 
em  limit  of  the  state,  short  rivers  run  toward  the 


PLEASURE  RESORTS. 


67 


ocean,    watering  the  land   and   making  it   pro- 
ductive. 

The  region  drained  by  these  rivers  is  a  country 
green  with  beautiful  orange  and  olive  groves  and 
vineyards,  while  here,  as  in  the  north,  thrifty 
cities  and  pretty  farm-  and  school-houses  dot  the 
fruitful  land. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I .  South  of  the  passes  through  the  mount- 
ains into  Southern  California  the  Coast  Range 
runs  southeast,  and  is  the  only  great  range. 

2.  The  San  Gabriel  and  San  Bernardino  Ranges 
are  the  most  important  divisions  of  the  Coast 
Range  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 

3.  The  country  northeast  of  the  Coast  Range 
in  Southern  California  is  a  great  desert,  called 
the  Mohave  Desert. 

4.  The  Colorado  Desert  is  a  long  and  narrow 
basin,  in  some  places  three  hundred  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  sea.  It  lies  west  of  the  San  Ber- 
nardino Range  of  mountains  and  extends  to  the 
southeast  corner  of  the  state. 

5.  The  Gulf  of  California  once  occupied  the 
basin  of  the  Colorado  Desert. 

II.  I ,  West  of  the  mountains  and  the  Colorado 
Desert,  fertile  valleys  reach  to  the  ocean. 

2.  The  principal  valleys  of  Southern  California 
<ixtend  nearly  east  and  west,  instead  of  north  and 
south,  as  in  Northern  California. 

3.  The  most  northerly  of  the  valleys  of  South- 
<im  California  is  drained  by  the  Santa  Maria  River; 
the  next  one  south  by  the  Santa  Inez;  the  third 
by  the  Santa  Clara;  the  fourth  by  the  San  Gabriel; 
iind  the  fifth  by  the  Santa  Ana. 

4.  What  do  we  see  in  the  southern  valleys  ? 


FAMOUS    CALIFORNIA    RESORTS. 
I.  Lake  Tahoe. 
For  Reading: 

Now  that  we  have  a  picture  of  our  whole  state, 
you  will  be  interested  to  know  something  of  the 
resorts  for  which  it  is  famous  throughout  the 
country.  One  of  these  is  Lake  Tahoe,  six 
thousand  feet  high,  among  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains.  To  visit  it  let  us  start  from  San 
Francisco  in  the  morning.  We  shall  cross  the 
San  Francisco  Bay  by  steamer  and  take  the  cars 
on  the  eastern  side.  Riding  toward  the  north- 
east we  shall  reach  Sacramento  about  noon  and 
get  dinner.  From  there  the  road  grows  steeper 
and  the  train  climbs  more  slowly  through  the 
foothills  and  over  the  summit  of  the  Sierra  Ne- 
vada Mountains. 

In  these  mountains  we  shall  pass  the  famous 
Cape  Horn,  where  we  make  so  sharp  a  turn 
around  the  mountain  side  that  at  one  time  both 
the  engine  and  rear  car  are  hidden  from  those 
who  sit  near  the  middle  of  the  train,  while  one 
thousand  feet  below  runs  the  American  River. 

Beyond  Cape  Horn  we  pass  among  mountains 
whose  sides  and  summits  have  been  washed  away 
by  the  gold  miners,  but  we  lose  sight  of  these 
when  we  enter  the  snowsheds. 

These  sheds  are  dismal  passages,  miles  long, 
made  of  heavy  planks,  to  keep  the  snow,  which 
often  falls  from  twenty  to  forty  feet  deep,  from 
blockading  the  railroad  track. 

After  stopping  over  night  at  Truckee,  early  the 
next  morning  we  take  the  stage  for  Tahoe,  which 
lies  fifteen  miles  to  the  south,  partly  in  California 
and  partly  in  Nevada. 

We  ride  along  the  winding  Truckee  River, 
which  has  its  source  in  Lake  Tahoe,  past  many 
lumber  camps,  and  after  a  few  hours'  journey  we 
suddenly  come  in  sight  of  the  lake,  with  its  rim 
of  purple  and  gray  mountains. 


68 


CALIFORNIA. 


How  beautiful  the  water  is!      It  seems  so  blue 
that  the  sky  looks  pale  by  contrast  with  it. 


An  Inlet  of  I,ake  Tahoe. 

When  sailing  upon  its  surface  we  find  that,  in 
places,  the  color  changes  to  a  golden  green,  like 
that  of  a  ripening  grain  field,  but  everywhere  it  is 
so  clear  that  we  can  see  the  brown  bowlders  and 
the  polished  pebbles  and  the  speckled  trout  a 
hundred  feet  below  us. 

All  around  the  edges  of  the  lake  are  the  reflec- 
tions of  the  lofty  mountains  and  the  tall  trees 
upon  their  sides  and  summits.  All  are  upside 
down,  of  course,  but  the  bark  and  branches  and 
cones  of  the  trees  are  distinct  in  form  and  color. 

This  beautiful  lake  is  twenty  miles  long  and 
ten  miles  wide,  and,  in  some  places,  over  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  deep.  It  is  a  lake  of  ice-cold  water, 
supplied  from  the  melting  snows  of  the  high 
mountains  above  it. 

From  Mount  Tallac,  the  highest  peak  near  the 
lake,  can  be  seen  fourteen  smaller  lakes  in  a  cafion 
region  that  leads  into  Tahoe. 

In  the  summer  many  people  go  there  to  breathe 
the  pure  air  and  amuse  themselves  by  rowing  and 
trout-fishing.  Many  hotels  are  built  on  the  lake 
shore  for  the  accommodation  of  these  pleasure 
seekers. 

In  winter  the  snow  falls  very  deep,  sometimes 
burying  the  houses,  and  no  one  tries  to  live  there 
then. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  Trip  to  Tahoe. — Copy  the  following 
outline  and  fill  out  as  indicated  in  the  model. 
Trace  the  route  on  the  picture: 

Direction  from  San  Francisco. —  Northeast. 

First  mode  of  conveyance. —  By  steamer. 

Second  mode  of  conveyance. —  By  cars.  . 

Noon  station. — 

Character  of  road  beyond. — 

Point  of  interest  on  the  way,  describe. — 

Snowsheds,  ^escribe. —  \ 

Night  station. — 

Third  mode  of  conveyance. — 

Distance  to  the  lake. 

2.  Description  of  Lake. — Arrange  the  fol- 
lowing topics  in  a  column,  as  in  the  above  models 
and  fill  out: 

Color  of  water;  Transparency;  Appearance  of  trees 
and  mountains  in  the  water;  Extent  and  depth;  Source 
of  supply;  Visitors;  Objects  of  visits;  Accommodations; 
Condition  in  winter. 


II.  The  Geysers. 
For  Reading: 

The  Geysers  are  a  remarkable  collection  of  hot 
springs  about  a  hundred  miles  north  of  San 
Francisco,  in  a  caiio;i  of  the  Coast  Range.  Great 
numbers  of  people  from  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try visit  them  every  year.  At  San  Francisco, 
about  nodn,  we  may  take  a  steamer  and  sail 
northeast  across  the  bay,  leaving  Mount  Diablo 
on  our  right  and  Mount  Tamalpais  far  to  our  left. 

Late  in  the  afternoon  we  shall  reach  Vallejo* 
(val  la'ho)  and  take  the  train  north  for  Calistoga. 
Here  our  route  lies  through  the  grain  fields  and 
vineyards  of  the  fertile  Napa  Valley,  and  at  dark 
we  come  to  the  end  of  the  railroad,  where  we 
remain  over  night. 

Next  morning  we  climb  into  the  six-horse  stage 
and  begin  to  dash  along  the  steep,  narrow  road 

1  What  is  the  common  way  of  going  to  Vallejo  from  San  Francisco? 


PLEASURE  RESORTS. 


69 


which  leads  over  the  mountain  ridge  to  the  Pluton 
Canon,  in  the  branches  of  which  the  geysers  are 
situated. 

Here  all  kinds  of  vile  smells  seem  mixed,  and 
at  every  step  we  may  pick  up  alum,  sulphur,  soda, 
magnesia,  and  other  things  that  we  have  never 
seen  before  except  in  a  drug  store. 

There  is  a  constant  sound  of  hissing,  bubbling, 
and  roaring.  Steam  comes  whistling  out  of  every 
hole.  Hot  water  boils  from  behind  the  rocks  and 
flows  along  the  canon.  Our  canes  sink  in  steam- 
ing sand,  and  the  rocks  are  as  hot  as  if  heated  by 
fire. 

The  springs,  of  which  there  are  over  one  hun- 
dred, are  mostly  in  the  bottoms  of  the  ravines 
and  the  blow-holes  are  on  the  hillsides. 

A  large  spring,  called  the  Steamboat  Geyser, 
sends  off  loud  blasts  of  steam,  so  hot  that  it  does 
not  cool  enough  to  be  seen  until  it  has  passed  six 
feet  from  the  opening  where  it  escapes.^ 

One  spring,  laden  with  sulphur  and  black  as 
ink,  is  called  the  Witches'  Cauldron. 

We  may  come  home  by  another  route.  We 
can  take  a  stage  west  to  Cloverdale,  and  from 
Cloverdale  we  may  take  the  cars  south  along  the 
Santa  Rosa  Valley  to  San  Francisco  Bay.  Here 
a  steamer  will  be  found  waiting,  in  which  we  may 
cross  to  San  Francisco. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  The  Geysers. — What  are  the  geysers? 
Distance  and  direction  from  San  Francisco? 
Where  located  ?  Repeat  the  first  sentence  of  the 
Reading  Lesson. 

Write  a  short  story  from  each  of  the  two  fol- 
lowing outlines: 

I.  Trip  to  the  Geysers.— First  mode  of  conveyance; 
direction;  to  what  point;  mountains  on  either  side;  sec- 
ond mode  of  conveyance;  direction;  through  what  val- 
1  Why  should  the  great  heat  of  the  steam  make  it  invisible? 


ley;  to  what  point;  third  mode  of  conveyance;  character 
of  road. 

2.  Description  of  Geysers.— Situation;  odors;  min- 
erals; number  of  springs;  location  of  springs;  of  blow- 
holes; Steamboat  Geyser,  describe;  Witches'  Cauldron. 

3.  Describe  the  return  trip. 


III.  The  Yosemite  Valley  and  Big  Trees. 
For  Reading: 

But  of  all  our  resorts  the  one  most  sought  by 
visitors  is  the  Yosemite  Valley.  By  flying 
directly  east  from  San  Francisco,  a  bird  would 
find  this  valley  150  miles  distant,  in  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains.  If  we  start  from  San  Fran- 
cisco we  cross  the  bay  by  steamer  to  Oakland  and 
take  a  train  southeast  to  Berenda.  After  a  night's 
rest  we  set  out  northeast,  traveling  a  short  dis- 
tance by  railroad,  and  then  taking  a  stage  for  a 
day  and  a  half  over  the  mountain  ridges  that  lie 
between  Raymond  and  the  Merced  River,  whose 
headwaters  flow  through  the  Yosemite  Cafion. 

As  we  approach  the  valley  our  first  view  of  it 
is  from  Inspiration  Point.  We  pass  from  dark 
forests  into  an  open  glade,  and  all  at  once  the 
picture  is  before  us,  obscured  only  by  a  floating 
lilac  haze.  Far  beneath  us  flows  the  Merced 
River,  its  waters  widening  out  into  a  mirror-like 
little  pool. 

A  green  lawn  borders  the  stream,  and  along  the 
sides  of  the  caiion  rise  towering  walls  of  granite 
nearly  a  mile  high,  with  peaks  and  domes  upon 
their  summits. 

El  Capitan  stands  out  boldly  at  the  front.  Fur- 
ther up  the  valley  rise  the  Three  Graces,  and  far 
away  are  seen  the  faint  outlines  of  Cloud's  Rest. 

Waterfalls,  looking  in  the  distance  like  white 
threads  and  ribbons  tossing  and  trailing  down  the 
sides  of  the  canon,  come  to  join  the  Merced  River 
at  the  bottom  of  the  valley. 

Descending  from  Inspiration  Point  we  enter  the 


70 


CALIFORNIA. 


valley,  which  lies  east  and  west.     Here,  pouring 
over  the  walls,  are  some  of  the  falls  that  we  saw 


On  the  Road  to  Yosemitk  Falls. 

from  the  distance.  The  Bridal  Veil  comes  down 
from  the  wall  on  the  right,  and  the  Virgin's  Tears 
from  the  one  on  the  left. 

Passing  up  the  valley  towards  the  east,  we  stand 
between  El  Capitan  on  the  north  and  Cathedral 
Spires  on  the  south.  El  Capitan  has  two  sides, 
each  half  a  mile  across,  meeting  as  the  walls  of  a 
house  meet  on  the  outside.  It  is  more  than  3,000 
feet  high.  Thirty  hotels  like  the  Palace,  in  San 
Francisco,  might  be  built  in  front  of  it,  one  on  top 
of  the  other,  before  reaching  to  its  summit. 

Half  way  up  the  valley,  pouring  over  the  wall 
of  the  north  side,  are  the  Yosemite  Falls,  leaping 
down  2,600  feet  in  three  jumps.      This  is  the 


highest  cataract  in  the  world,  though  it  has  not  the 
greatest  amount  of  water.  Sometimes  the  wind 
spreads  the  water  out  into  a  fan  three  hundred 
feet  wide,  and  swings  it  as  if  it  were  a  pendulum. 
There  are  many  other  wonderful  sights,  and  we 
may  spend  whole  days  at  a  single  place  without 
becoming  tired  of  the  view. 

Though  so  famous,  this  valley  is  not  large.  It 
is  only  about  eight  miles  long  and  one  mile  wide. 
The  floor  of  the  valley  is  4,000  feet  higher  than 
San  Francisco  Bay,  and  its  walls  in  some  places 
rise  almost  straight  up  4,000  feet  more. 

No  one  can  own  any  part  of  it.  The  United 
States  government  long  ago  gave  this  valley  and 
the  Mariposa  Grove  of  Big  Trees^  to  California  for 
a  perpetual  pleasure  ground,  and  the  state  has 
done  much  to  add  to  its  attractions  and  to  provide 
comfortable  stopping  places  for  travelers. 

On  our  way  home  we  may  visit  the  Big  Trees. 
One  tree,  called  the  Grizzly  Giant,  requires  a 
string  nearly  one  hundred  feet  long  to  encircle  it. 
One,  called  Abraham  lyincoln,  is  320  feet  high. 
Just  think  how  many  men  each  six  feet  tall  would 
have  to  stand  one  on  another's  shoulders  to  pick 
a  cone  from  the  top! 

These  trees  are  a  kind  of  redwood.  The  name 
is  a  long  one,  but  it  is  worth  learning — Sequoia 
gigantea. 

The  Calaveras  Grove  of  Big  Trees  is  another 
group  of  Sequoia  gigantea.  It  stands  about  sev- 
enty miles  north  of  the  Mariposa  grove,  and  con- 
tains larger  trees.  One,  called  the  Mother  of  the 
Forest,  is  325  feet  high.  A  tree  of  this  grove 
has  been  felled.  It  took  five  men  three  weeks 
to  cut  it  down.  Parties  sometimes  dance  on  the 
stump  of  one  of  these  trees  as  if  it  were  the  floor 
of  a  hall.  A  school  could  easily  be  seated  upon 
it  if  it  were  near.  A  hole  has  been  made  through 
a  standing  tree  large  enough  for  the  passage  of  a 
stage  coach. 


I  Reading  Hour:  Johonnot's  Geographical  Reader,  p.  165,  The  Big 
Trees. 


MINING. 


71 


For  Recitation: 

III.  The  Yosemite  Vai^ley. —  Write  a  short 
story  from  each  of  the  three  following  outlines: 

1.  Trip  to  Yosemite.— Air  line  direction  from  San 
Francisco;  first  mode  of  conveyance;  to  what  point; 
second  mode  of  conveyance;  direction;  to  what  point; 
direction  from  that  point;  mode  of  conveyance;  time 
required. 

2.  Description  of  Yosemite.— First  view  from  what; 
at  which  end  of  valley;  walls  of  the  cafion;  points  seen, 

I ,  2 ,  3 ;  direction  of  valley;  waterfalls  on  the 

south  side;  on  the  north  side,   i ,  2 ;   BU  Capitan, 

describe ;  Yosemite  Falls,  describe ;  extent  of  valley; 
elevationof  the  bottom;  height  of  the  walls;  ownership; 
settlement. 

3.  Description  of  Big  Trees.— Nearest  grove;  direc- 
tion from  Yosemite;  Grizzly  Giant,  size;  Abraham  Lin- 
coln, height;  kind  of  trees;  second  grove;  direction  and 
distance  from  Mariposa  group;  size  of  trees. 

Why  should  the  highest  tree  be  named  Abraham  Lin- 
coln? 


MINING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

I.  Discovery  of  Gold — Early  Mining. 
For  Reading: 

When  you  think  of  the  occupations  of  the  peo- 
ple of  Cahfomia  you  may  perhaps  think  first  of 
what  those  in  your  own  neighborhood  are  doing, 
but  old  settlers  would  be  likely  to  think  first  of 
Mining,  because  it  was  through  the  mining  of 
gold  that  California  first  became  much  known  to 
the  world. 

Before  gold  was  discovered  very  few  settlers 


had  come  to  California.  A  few  monks  had  estab- 
lished missions  to  convert  the  Indians,  and  these 
had  been  followed  by  a  few  Spanish  and  Mexican 
settlers,  California  having  first  belonged  to  Spain 
and  then  to  Mexico.  About  two  years  before 
gold  was  discovered  some  Americans,  also,  had 
begun  to  come  in;  California  about  that  time  hav- 
ing become  a  possession  of  the  United  States. 
As  soon,  however,  as  gold  was  found,  people 
came  from  all  directions — from  Mexico,  South 
America,  Europe,  and  Asia — but  mostly  from  the 
eastern  part  of  the  United  States,  and  in  two 
years  the  population  had  increased  from  only  a 
few  Spaniards  on  the  coast  and  woodsmen  in  the 
interior  to  100,000  people,  and  California  was 
made  a  state  at  once. 

Gold  was  first  found  near  Coloma,  which  is 
northeast  of  Sacramento,  in  the  foothills,  or  lower 
slopes,  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  A  man. 
named  Sutter  had  a  sawmill  there,  and  early  in 
January,  1848,  one  of  his  hired  men,  named  Mar- 
shall, saw  some  gold  in  the  sands  of  the  stream 
which  turned  the  mill.  The  two  men  and  their 
friends  tried  to  keep  the  discovery  a  secret;  but 
no  news  ever  before  went  around  the  world  so 
quickly,  and  soon  people  were  on  their  way  from 
every  land  in  search  of  California  gold. 

At  first  they  thought  that  gold  was  to  be  found 
only  in  the  beds  of  streams,  but  they  afterwards 
learned  that  it  was  all  along  the  western  slopes 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains.  It  was  in  the 
rocks  of  the  hills  and  ravines,  and  in  the  gravel 
that  had  been  made  out  of  these  rocks  by  the 
action  of  the  water  for  many  thousand  years. 
The  work  of  the  miners  was  to  separate  the  gold 
from  the  rock  or  the  gravelly  soil. 

The  first  mining  was  done  by  loosening  the 
gravel  with  picks  and  shovels  and  then  putting 
it  into  pans  or  rockers,  or  some  other  contrivance, 
and  shaking  and  draining  it  till  only  the  gold, 
which  always  falls  to  the  bottom,  remained.  This 
was  called  Placer  mining. 


72 


CALIFORNIA. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  The  discovery  of  gold  in  California 
•brought  the  first  large  numbers  of  people. 

2.  Before  that  some  monks  had  established 
missions,  a  few  Spaniards  and  Mexicans  had 
settled  in  the  country,  and  a  few  people  from  the 
United  States. 

3.  A  man  named  Marshall  first  discovered  gold 
in  a  stream  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains,  a 
little  northeast  of  Sacramento. 

Read  carefully  the  second  and  third  paragraphs  and 
tell  in  what  year  California  was  made  a  state.  What  are 
foothills? 

4.  Gold  was  afterward  found  all  along  the 
western  slope  of  the  mountains  in  the  rocks  and 
in  the  gravel. 

5.  To  make  the  gravel  the  rocks  had  been  worn 
for  thousands  of  years  by  water. 

6.  How  was  the  first  mining  done,  and  what 
was  it  called? 


II.  Hydraulic  Mining. 
For  Reading: 

In  Hydraulic  mining  water  takes  the  place  of 
the  pick  and  shovel.  The  water  is  led  through 
an  iron  pipe  down  a  steep  slope,  so  that  it  will 
acquire  great  speed  and  force.  At  the  beginning 
the  pipe  is  four  feet  or  more  in  circumference,  but 
it  gradually  narrows  until  it  is  not  more  than  six 
inches  at  the  end  where  the  water  is  discharged. 

The  water  bursts  out  with  terrible  force,  and 
tears  down  the  gravel,  clay,  and  bowlders  of  the 
bank  against  which  it  is  thrown.  The  stream 
washes  out  and  carries  ofi"  more  earth  than  many 
thousand  men  could  remove  in  the  same  time 
with  picks,  shovels,  and  barrows. 

This  hydraulic  mining  has  been  followed  all 
along  the  western  slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains. 


When  the  ground  is  hard,  the  miners  often  dig 
a  passage  into  the  bank  and  put  in  kegs  of  powder 
and  explode  it  to  loosen  the  soil  and  rocks,  so 
that  it  will  be  easier  for  the  water  to  wash  away  j 
the  mass.  I 

When  the  water  is  turned  on,  it  carries  with  it 
gravel  and  bowlders,  rumbling  and  tumbling 
through  a  cut  into  a  sloping  channel  lined  with 
plank.  This  channel  is  called  a  flume,  and  leads 
off  to  a  river  or  ravine.  Gold  always  sinks  to 
the  bottom  of  this  stream  of  debris,  as  its  particles 
are  heavier  than  the  particles  of  earth  or  rock. 

At  the  bottom  of  the  flume  are  cross-bars  of 
iron,  called  riffles,  to  hold  the  gold.  Quicksilver 
is  scattered  here  to  catch  the  fine  particles.  It 
seems  to  try  to  hide  the  gold,  for  it  covers  every 
speck  and  makes  it  look  silvery  like  itself. 

After  a  certain  number  of  days  the  water  is 
turned  out  of  the  flume,  and  what  has  settled  in 
the  bottom  is  scraped  out.  The  gold  is  then 
washed  from  the  dirt  in  pans,  and  the  mass,  cov- 
ered with  quicksilver,  is  put  into  buckskin  bags, 
through  which  all  the  quicksilver  possible  is 
squeezed. 

Some  still  clings  to  the  gold,  and  the  mixture  is 
called  amalgam.  This  amalgam  is  heated  hot 
enough  to  drive  off  the  quicksilver  as  vapor. 
The  vapor  is  then  caught  and  cooled,  thus  becom- 
ing quicksilver  again,  and  may  be  used  in  this 
way  many  times.  The  clean  gold  is  now  melted, 
run  into  molds,  and  sent  to  the  mint  for  coining. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  Hydraulic  mining  is  done  by  throwing 
powerful  streams  of  water  against  the  mountains, 
thus  tearing  away  the  soil,  gravel,  and  bowlders, 
among  which  the  gold  is  hidden. 

2 .  The  soil  and  rock  are  sometimes  first  loosened 
by  exploding  powder  in  a  chamber  dug  in  the 
earth  for  that  purpose. 


MINING, 


73 


3.  The  streams  of  water  wash  the  loosened 
masses  into  a  channel  called  a  flume. 

4.  The  gold  settles  in  the  bottom  of  the  flume 
and  is  caught  by  quicksilver  that  has  been  placed 
there  for  that  purpose. 

5.  The  gold  and  dirt  that  have  settled  at  the 
bottom  are  scraped  up  and  the  dirt  is  washed  out. 

6.  The  gold,  enveloped  in  quicksilver,  is  then 
put  into  buckskin  bags,  and  as  much  quicksilver 
as  possible  is  squeezed  through. 

7.  What  is  amalgam?  How  is  the  quicksilver 
in  the  amalgam  got  rid  of?  What  is  then  done 
with  the  pure  gold? 


III.  Quartz  Mining. 
For  Reading: 

But  little  hydraulic  mining  is  now  done. 
Quartz  mining  is  more  common.  •  This  is  carried 
on  by  digging  and  blasting  drifts  and  shafts  under 
the  earth. 

The  drifts  are  passages  that  run  horizontally 
into  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  following  a  shelf 
of  gold-bearing  rock  called  quartz.  The  shafts 
run  perpendicularly  down,  like  wells. 

In  the  drifts  the  air  is  not  very  pure,  and  the 
miners  have  to  work  in  cramped  positions,  often 
stooping,  sometimes  on  their  knees,  sometimes 
lying  on  their  backs  picking  at  the  rocks  above. 
Almost  always  there  is  water  dripping  on  them, 
and  they  stand  in  mud.  Their  only  light  comes 
irom  a  sputtering  candle  stuck  in  the  side  of  the 
drift,  or  passage. 

The  quartz  is  brought  out  in  hand  cars,  and 
(^rushed  into  powder  by  solid  iron  pillars  called 
stamps.  Some  of  these  stamps  weigh  five  hun- 
dred pounds  each,  are  driven  by  steam,  and  strike 
forty  of  their  terrible  blows  in  one  minute. 

The  powdered  rock  is  washed  along  a  flume  by 


Interior  of  a  Quicksilver  Mine  at  New  Almaden. 

a  stream  of  water  and  passes  through  a  sieve,  the 
gold  being  caught  by  quicksilver,  which  is 
sprinkled  all  along  its  passage  way.  Then  it  is 
put  through  buckskin  bags,  as  in  hydraulic  min- 
ing. 

The  quicksilver,  so  necessary  in  gold  mining, 
comes  chiefly  from  the  New  Almaden  mine,  near 
San  Jose,  though  it  is  found  in  small  quantities 
all  along  the  Coast  Range.  It  is  found  in  beds 
of  slate  rock,  and  is  mined  by  means  of  shafts 
and  drifts,  as  in  quartz  mining. 

The  ore  looks  very  much  like  common  brick. 
It  is  put  into  an  oven  and  heated  until  the  quick- 
silver goes  off"  as  vapor.  When  cooled,  the  vapor 
is  condensed  into  pure  quicksilver,  which  is  very 
heavy,  and  is  kept  and  sold  in  iron  flasks. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  In  quartz  mining  the  rock  containing 
gold  is  broken  up  by  digging  and  blasting. 

2.  After  the  rock  is  broken,  it  is  taken  out  and 
crushed  to  powder  by  great  hammers,  called 
stamps,  which  are  worked  by  steam  power. 

3.  The  powdered  rock  is  washed  along  a  flume 
by  a  stream  of  water,  and  the  gold  is  caught  by 


74 


CALIFORNIA. 


quicksilver,  from  which  it  is  then  separated,  as  in 
hydrauHc  mining. 

4.  Quicksilver  is  mostly  found  in  a  mine  at 
New  Almaden,  near  San  Jose. 

5.  Quicksilver  ore  looks  hke  common  brick. 

6.  The  ore  is  put  into  an  oven  and  heated  till 
*     the  quicksilver  goes  off  in  vapor. 


FARMING    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Oral. — What  kind  of  grain  have  you  seen 
growing?  Where?  On  whose  farm?  What 
farming  work  have  you  ever  seen?  Tell  how  it 
was  done.  Where  have  you  seen  fruit  growing  ? 
What  kinds  ?     For  what  is  each  kind  used  ? 

I.  Irrigating — Grain  Raising. 

For  Reading: 

Grain  raising  is  now  a  leading  pursuit  in  Cal- 
ifornia. It  has  not  always  been  so.  When  gold 
was  first  discovered  the  country  was  only  a  graz- 
ing ground  for  cattle. 

At  first  it  was  feared  that  good  crops  could  not 
be  raised  because  of  the  lack  of  summer  rains, 
but  it  was  soon  found  that  the  ground  could  be 
plowed  in  spring,  and  by  sowing  the  seed  after 
the  first  rains  in  the  fall  a  fine  harvest  could  be 
reaped  the  next  year. 

In  some  parts  of  the  state  .  farmers  do  not 
depend  wholly  upon  rain  to  water  their  land. 
Ditches  have  been  dug  and  connected  with  the 
rivers,  by  means  of  which  they  can  flood  the  land 
with  water  whenever  they  wish. 

In  other  places  wells  have  been  bored,  through 
which  streams  of  water  gush  up  constantly,  and 
these  are  conducted  upon  any  land  that  needs 
moisture.  Wells  of  this  kind  are  called  artesian 
wells,  and  these  methods  of  watering  are  called 
irrigation. 

The  lasting  prosperity  of  California  began  with 


farming.  In  the  early  mining  days  nothing  was 
permanent.  Men  lived  in  rude  cabins,  ready  to 
move  to  a  new  mine  any  day,  or  return  to  their 
old  homes  in  the  east  as  soon  as  they  had  grown 
rich. 

Now,  when  they  found  that  farming  would 
jdeld  as  rich  returns  as  mining,  many  resolved  to 
devote  their  attention  to  that.  They  sent  for 
their  families  and  began  to  build  homes  and 
school  houses  and  towns,  and  now  California  pro- 
duces almost  as  much  grain  as  any  state  in  the 
Union — wheat  and  barley  being  the  principal 
kinds. 

The  great  wheat  and  barley  fields  of  the  state 
are  in  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joa- 
quin Rivers.  Large  crops  of  barley  are  also  raised 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  state. 

The  farmers  of  California  raise  much  more 
grain  than  can  be  used  at  home,  and  the  surplus 
is  sold  to  all  parts  of  the  world.  In  one  year 
enough  grain  was  raised  to  give  i ,  500  pounds  to 
every  one  living  in  the  state. 

Some  men  own  vast  farms,  ^  and  it  is  an  inter- 
esting sight  to  see  their  workmen  breaking  the 
surface  of  the  ground  with  gang  plows,  each  plow 
drawn  by  eight  or  more  horses,  and  ten  plows 
often  working  almost  side  by  side,  all  of  them 
together  cutting  a  strip  of  land  forty  feet  or  more 
wide,  and  sometimes  going  a  mile  before  turning. 

Some  machines  cut  the  grain  and  thrash  it  at 
the  same  time.  With  such  a  machine  four  men 
and  twenty  horses  can  easily  harvest  thirty  acres 
in  a  day,  leaving  the  grain  sewed  up  in  sacks,  in 
great  piles,  in  the  field. 

Sometimes  the  thrasher  works  by  steam,  and 
the  fire  of  the  engine  is  fed  by  the  straw  from 
which  the  wheat  has  been  thrashed.  These 
machines  cost  so  much  that  not  every  farmer  can 
own  one.     Many  hire  a  thrasher  to  do  their  work, 

I  Reading  Hour:   King's  Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography,  p.  302,  A 
California  Farm. 


FARMING  AND  FRUIT  GROWING. 


75 


and  the  machiner}^  with  a  kitchen 
on   wheels,    is  hauled  from  farm   to 
farm.     A  cook  accompanies  the  party 
to  prepare  meals  for  the  workers,  and  a 
cow  follows  to  furnish  milk. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  In  California  ground 
is  usually  plowed  in  spring 
and    the  seed   sowed 
after  the  first  rains 
in  the  fall. 

2.  In   many  places 
ditches   have  been  dug 
leading    from    rivers    or 
reservoirs  to  farming  land, 
and    the    water     is     carried 
through  them   out   upon   the 
land. 

3.  Artesian  wells   have  been 
bored   in   some  places,   and   the 
water    run    off    upon    the  land 
through  pipes. 

4.  What  is  irrigation 

5.  What  are  the  prin- 
cipal grain  products 
of  California? 

6.  What      is      the 
principal      grain      pro- 
ducing   region    of    Cali- 
fornia ? 

7.  Grain     is     often      har- 
vested   by    machines    that   cut 
it  and  thrash  it  at  the  same  time 

8.  Describe  the  way  of  work 
ing  with  a  steam  thrasher. 


II.  Fruit  Growing. 

For  Reading: 

In   Fruit   raising   California    surpasses    any 
other  part  of  the  world. 

Nearly  every  kind  of  fruit 
may   be    found  in   the   or- 
chards of  the   great  valley 
of  the  Sacramento  and  San 
Joaquin;  but  peaches,  pears, 
figs,  grapes,  nectarines,  plums, 
and    cherries   are   the   principal 
fruits. 

The   foothills    yield    the    most 
luscious  fruits  of  every    descrip- 
tion.     Here    the    best    apples 
grow. 

The  vineyards  and  orchards 
in  the  valley  of  the  Sacra- 
mento  and   San   Joaquin 
Rivers   are    larger  than 
in  the  smaller  valleys 
of     Santa       Clara, 
Napa,      Sonoma, 
Santa       Rosa, 
and      Livermore, 
though  not  so  nu- 
merous. Picking  fruit 
gives    employment     to 
many  boys  and  girls  in  all 
parts  of  the  state. 

In  the  valleys  of  Southern 

California   the  apricot,    orange, 

lemon,  olive,   fig,   and  grape 

grow  in  large  quantities. 

The  grape  is  found  in 
nearly  all  parts  of 
the  state,  and  its 
cultivation  employs 
many  people. 


76 


CALIFORNIA. 


The  largest  vineyard  in  the  world  is  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Sacramento  Valley.  It  is  so 
large  that  it  would  take  a  man  a  half  day  to  walk 
around  it,  though  going  ver>^  briskly.  More  than 
three  hundred  men  and  boys  are  sometimes  out 
among  the  vines  of  this  vineyard  picking  grapes. 
The  pickers  come  from  San  Francisco,  Sacra- 
mento, and  many  other  places. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  What  are  the  chief  fruits  of  the  Sacra- 
mento and  San  Joaquin  Valley  ?  Where  do  the 
best  apples  grow?  What  smaller  valleys  of 
Northern  California  are  distinguished  for  fruit 
raising  ? 

2.  Where  are  the  largest  orchards  and  vine- 
3-ards  ? 

3.  Name  the  principal  fruits  in  the  valleys  of 
Southern  California. 

4.  The  largest  vineyard  in  the  world  is  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  Sacramento  Valley. 


III.  Marketing  and  Preserving  Fruit. 
For  Reading: 

Every  year,  California  sends  thousands  of  tons 
of  fruit  to  the  eastern  states  and  other  parts  of 
the  world,  where  it  is  eagerly  bought.  At  Sac- 
ramento, Los  Angeles,  San  Jose,  and  some  other 
towns,  many  men  are  kept  busy  every  day  dur- 
ing the  fruit  season  loading  fruit  cars,  which  are 
sent  east  by  the  fastest  trains. 

Besides,  we  have  establishments  for  drying  and 
canning  the  fruit  to  preserve  what  we  do  not  use 
or  sell  while  fresh. 

In  the  Santa  Clara  Valley,  near  San  Jose,  the 
canneries  furnish  work  for  many  boys  and  girls. 


as  well  as  men  and  women.  In  most  canneries 
children  perform  a  large  part  of  the  work. 

When  drying  apricots,  plums,  and  peaches  in 
the  sun,  the  fruit  is  split,  and  the  pieces  laid  care- 
fully on  shallow  trays.  Apples  and  pears  are 
sliced  to  dry.  Fruit  is  also  dried  by  machines 
in  a  quicker  and  cleaner  way  than  it  can  be  dried 
by  the  sun. 

One  process,  called  evaporating^  will,  in  a  few 
hours,  take  enough  moisture  from  the  fruit  to  dry 
it  properly,  and  still  leave  the  fine  flavor. 

Most  of  the  grapes  are  made  into  wine.  In  the 
great  vineyard  mentioned  in  the  last  lesson  the 
grapes  as  they  are  picked  are  laid  in  large  boxes, 
and  afterwards  carried  in  wagons  to  a  great  build- 
ing, where  there  are  machines  to  crush  them,  and 
large  tubs,  called  vats,  to  hold  the  juice,  which 
pours  into  them  all  day  in  steady  streams  from  the 
crushers.  This  juice  soon  ferments  and  becomes 
wine,  which  is  stored  in  casks  so  large  that,  even 
if  they  were  Ijdng  on  their  sides,  a  man  might 
stand  upright  in  one. 

In  many  vineyards  the  grapes  are  made  into 
raisins.  The  largest  raisin  vineyard  in  the  world 
is  near  Sacramento,  but  raisins  are  chiefly  made 
in  the  country  around  Fresno,  about  two  hundred 
miles  south  of  this. 

Many  children  help  at  the  raisin  making.  The 
grapes  are  picked  and  placed  on  trays,  and  in 
about  nine  days  the  bunches  are  turned  over  and 
left  a  week  longer.  After  this  they  are  boxed 
and  put  into  an  air-tight  or  steam-heated  room  to 
sweat.  This  makes  the  stems  and  raisins  soft, 
and  they  are  then  ready  for  market. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  Tell  what  you  can  of  the  following  topics: 

1.  Shipping  fruit.  4.  Wine  making. 

2.  Canning  fruit.  5.   Raisin  making. 

3.  Drying  fruit. 


MANUFA  CTURING. 


77 


MANUFACTURES    IN    CALIFORNIA. 

Oral. — Have  you  ever  seen  a  saw-mill?  A 
blacksmith  shop?  A  fiouriug-mill ?  A  machine 
shop?  A  woolen  mill?  A  shoe  shop?  A  car- 
penter shop?  A  printing  office?  What  was 
made  in  each?  Tell,  as  well  as  yoii  can,  how  it 
was  done. 

I.  Manufacture  of  Food  Products. 

For  Reading: 

The  Manufactures  of  CaHfomia  are  very  im- 
portant. The  most  valuable  of  them  are  Butter 
and  Cheese. 

The  principal  dairies  are  among  the  foothills  of 
the  mountains  and  near  the  coast,  where  the  grass 
is  good. 

A  dairy  about  fourteen  miles  south  of  San 
Francisco  employs  one  hundred  men.  There  are 
18,000  acres  in  the  tract,  and  it  is  divided  into  nine 
fields.  Each  field  has  in  it  a  certain  number  of 
cows,  and  is  well  supplied  with  water. 

In  the  center  of  each  pasture  is  the  milking 
place,  and  near  it  a  platform  on  which  stands  a 
great  double  strainer.  The  milk  is  poured  through 
this  and  carried  off  by  pipes  to  the  milk  house, 
where  it  is  placed  in  pans.  The  cream  is  skimmed 
every  thirty-six  hours,  and  churned  by  horse 
power. 

One  hundred  pounds  of  butter  are  worked  and 
salted  in  one  mass,  which  is  then  divided  and 
packed  in  rolls  of  two  pounds  each. 

Across  the  bay,  a  few  miles  north  of  San  Fran- 
cisco, are  many  dairies  famous  for  their  fine  butter. 

The  largest  cheese  dairy  is  near  the  coast, 
southwest  of  Lake  Tulare.  One  thousand  cows 
are  milked  there. 

Next  in  importance  is  the  manufacture  of 
Flour.  In  the  state  are  nearly  200  flouring-mills. 
Some  work  by  water  and  some  by  steam.  San 
]?rancisco  has  a  greater  number  of  mills  than  any 
other  city  of  the  state. 


The  largest  flouring-mill  in  the  state  is  on  the 
northern  side  of  San  Pablo  Bay.  Vessels  can  sail 
up  on  one  side  of  it  for  cargoes,  and  a  side-track 
from  the  railroad  runs  on  the  other  side  to  bring 
wheat  from  the  valleys  and  carry  away  flour. 
This  mill  often  makes  1,700  barrels  of  flour  in 
one  day.  What  a  mountain  of  flour  that  would 
make  in  a  year! 

California  Sugar  making  chiefly  consists  in  tak- 
ing raw  sugar,  obtained  from  other  places,  and 
purifying  it  in  our  refineries. 

Raw  sugar  is  a  coarse,  brown  sugar  made  by 
boiling  the  juice  of  the  sugar  cane.  Our  supply 
is  mostly  obtained  from  the  great  plantations  of 
the  Sandwich  Islands. 

In  refining  it  the  raw  sugar  is  dissolved  in  hot 
water,  and  pumped  into  the  upper  part  of  the 
building.  Here  it  is  heated  very  hot  in  pans,  and 
a  little  lime  added  to  destroy  any  acid  matter  that 
may  be  in  the  mixture.  From  these  pans  it  is 
strained,  still  hot,  through  two  bags — one  coarse 
and  one  fine — and  it  drips  out  red,  like  wine. 
Next,  it  is  filtered  through  a  substance  called 
bone-black,  which  catches  all  impurities,  and  the 
liquid  becomes  perfectly  clear.  It  is  then  allowed 
to  settle  and  harden  into  sugar.  The  part  that 
does  not  harden  is  made  into  syrup. 

Besides  the  sugar  produced  in  this  way,  consid- 
erable attention  is  given  to  the  manufacture  of 
beet  sugar.  A  large  factory  for  this  purpose  is 
located  in  Santa  Cruz  County,  and  the  raising  of 
beets  to  supply  it  is  a  constantly  growing  industry. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  The  most  valuable  manufactures  of  Cali- 
fornia are  butter  and  cheese,  and  the  next  is  flour. 

2.  Where  are  the  principal  butter  and  cheese 
dairies  ? 


78 


CALIFORNIA. 


3.  Describe  butter  making  in  a  large 
dairy,  and  tell  where  such  a  dairy  is. 

4.  In  what  part  of  the  state  are 
famous  butter  dairies  found? 

5.  Where  is  the  largest  cheese  dairy 
in  the  state  ? 

6.  How  many  flouring-mills  has  Cali- 
fornia, and  how  are  they  run  ? 

7.  What  city  of  the  state  has  most 
flour  mills  ? 

8.  Where  is  the  largest  flouring-mill, 
and  how  much  flour  can  it  make  in  one 
day? 

9.  In  what  does  the  manufacture  of 
sugar  in  California  consist  ? 

10.  Describe  raw  sugar.     Where  obtained? 

11.  Describe  the  first  step  in  refining  sugar; 
the  second;  the  third;  the  fourth. 


II.  Leather  and  Iron. 

For  Reading: 

Leather  and  Ironware  are  also  among  the  large 
manufactures  of  California. 

You  do  not  need  to  be  told  from  what  leather 
is  made.  In  its  manufacture  the  hides  are  first 
soaked  in  water  twenty-four  hours,  to  clear  them 
of  blood.  Then  they  are  kept  in  lime  for  a  week, 
to  loosen  the  hair  and  flesh.  At  the  end  of  this 
time  they  are  taken  out  and  scraped  clean,  after 
which  they  are  piled  up,  with  layers  of  bark  be- 
tween them,  in  large,  deep,  square  tubs,  called 
vats.  They  are  then  covered  with  water  and  left 
to  stand  for  a  number  of  days.  There  is  some- 
thing in  the  bark  which  soaks  into  the  hide  and 
makes  it  heavier  and  softer,  and  it  comes  out 
leather. 


Union  Iron  Works,  San  Francisco. 

The  bark  used  in  the  California  tanneries  is  sup- 
plied from  the  Chestnut  Oak,  which  grows  along 
the  coast  mountains.  This  oak  is  found  mostly 
in  the  north,  but  is  becoming  quite  scarce,  as  the 
tree  dies  when  its  bark  is  taken  off. 

Iron  manufactures  are  produced  chiefly  in  the 
foundries  of  San  Francisco,  and  consist  princi- 
pally of  mining  and  agricultural  implements  and 
saws  for  the  lumber  mills. 

One  of  these  foundries  also  builds  steel  and  iron 
ships.  Other  iron  works  make  barbed  wire  for 
fences  and  cables  for  street  cars,  for  bridges,  and 
for  mines. 

The  iron  products  of  the  railroad  shops  at  Sac- 
ramento are  also  very  extensive.  Two  thousand 
men  work  there,  and  the  buildings  cover  thirty- 
six  acres  of  ground.  In  these  shops  are  also 
made  the  desks  and  tables  for  hundreds  of  rail- 
road ofiices  and  the  woodwork  and  furniture  for 
cars. 

Extensive  shops  for  repairing  railroad  cars  are 
located  in  Los  Angeles. 


A    COMMERCIAL   CITY. 


79 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  Leather  and  iron  goods  are  largely  man- 
ufactured in  California. 

2.  Tell  what  is  done  with  hides  to  make  them 
into  leather. 

3.  What  bark  is  used  in  tanning,  and  where 
found  ? 

4.  Where  are  most  of  the  iron  manufactures  of 
the  state  produced,  and  in  what  do  they  chiefly 
consist  ? 

5.  What  other  manufactures  of  iron  are  pro- 
duced ? 

6.  Describe  the  railroad  shops  at  Sacramento. 
What  articles  besides  those  of  iron  are  made  there  ? 


III.  Lumber — Woolen  Goods — Clothing. 
For  Reading: 

We  have  said  nothing  about  the  Lumber  mills. 
To  find  these  we  must  leave  the  cities. 

These  mills  are  near  the  forests.  The  chief 
timber  regions  of  California  are  the  redwood  for- 
ests of  the  Coast  Range,  from  Monterey  north- 
ward, and  the  sugar  pine  forests  of  the  Sierra 
Nevada  Mountains. 

Logs  are  cut  high  up  in  the  mountains,  and  if 
';oo  far  away  to  be  hauled  by  teams  are  sent  down 
';o  the  mills  by  slides,  or  flumes,  which  are  built 
<iown  the  mountain  sides.  Some  of  these  flumes 
are  more  than  twenty  miles  long,  and  the  logs 
whiz  down  so  fast  that  you  can  hardly  see  them 
go  by.  Sometimes  they  are  floated  down  the 
streams,  and  lie  in  great  piles  till  the  mill  men 
are  ready  to  saw  them.' 

We  must  not  forget  the  Woolen  mills.  The 
best  blankets  manufactured  anywhere  in  the 
United  States  are  made  in  California,  and  great 
t[uantities  of  other  woolen  goods,  such  as  flannels 


and  cloth  for  men  and  boys'  clothing,  are  also 
produced. 

Other  manufactures  are  considerable.  If  we 
were  to  visit  San  Francisco,  we  should  find  a 
great  many  rooms,  in  the  upper  stories  of  large 
buildings,  where  hundreds  of  sewing  machines 
are  clicking  all  day  long  in  the  manufacture  of 
clothing.  Many  others  are  filled  with  men 
making  saddles  and  harnesses.  In  others  as 
many  as  one  hundred  men  may  be  found  engaged 
in  making  boots  and  shoes. 


For  Recitation: 

IV.  I.  Saw-mills  for  making  lumber  are  near  the 
redwood  forests  of  the  Coast  Range  and  the  sugar 
pine  forests  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 

2.  Logs  are  often  sent  from  the  forests  down 
the  mountain  sides  to  the  mills  by  long  flumes. 

3.  California  is  celebrated  for  its  manufacture 
of  blankets,  flannels,  and  woolen  cloth  for  clothing. 

4.  Clothing,  saddles  and  harness,  and  boots 
and  shoes  are  largely  manufactured  in  San  Fran- 
cisco. 

5.  Write  a  list,  to  read  in  class,  of  all  the  things 
not  mentioned  in  these  lessons,  that  you  know  are 
manufactured  in  California. 


A    COMMERCIAL     CITY. 

For  Reading: 

"What  is  commerce?"  said  Ned,  as  the  teacher 
told  the  class  that  upon  the  following  day  they 
would  talk  of  a  city  noted  for  its  commerce. 

Reuben  raised  his  hand  as  a  request  to  speak, 
and  the  teacher  nodded  consent. 

' '  I  think  Ned  would  know  what  commerce  is 
if  he  had  remembered  what  we  studied  on  the 
twenty- seventh  page  of  our  Geography,"  said  he. 


8o 


CALIFORNIA. 


v^ 

B 

At  the  Wharf  in  San  Francisco. 

As  it  was  found  that  several  of  the  children 
had  forgotten,  they  all  took  their  Geographies, 
and  the  teacher  talked  with  them  again  of  com- 
merce. 

The  next  day,  after  this  was  understood,  the 
class  came  together  again  to  talk  about  the  things 
to  be  found  in  a  great  commercial  city.  Several 
of  the  boys  had  visited  San  Francisco,  and  could 
tell  what  they  had  seen. 

Upon  alighting  at  the  wharf  they  had  joined 
in  the  moving  crowd  and  had  been  hurried  along 
to  the  street  cars,  which  were  standing  on  iron 
tracks  that  extended  into  the  city  for  miles  along 
the  streets. 

Some  of  the  cars  were  drawn  by  horses,  some 
were  fastened  to  underground  ropes  of  wire,  called 
cables,  and  drawn  by  steam.  These,  full  of 
people,  followed  one  another  through  many  streets 
along  the  iron  tracks. 

Going  out  in  these  cars,  they  saw  for  miles 
along  the  streets  very  large  and  very  high  build- 
ings, filled  with  goods  of  various  kinds  for  sale. 

There  were  warehouses  and  stores  filled  with 
dry  goods,  hardware,  boots  and  shoes,  furniture, 
drugs,  carriages,  stoves,  grates  and  mantels,  hats 
and  caps,  millinery,  groceries,  cured  fish,  leather, 


salted  and  smoked  meat,  crockery,  pianos 
and  organs,  and  with  manj^  other  things — 
all  to  be  sent  out  to  other  towns  in  ex- 
change for  money.  When  the  money 
was  received  it  was  to  be  sent  out  again 
for  more  goods. 

They  saw  many  things  besides — things 
that  are  always  to  be  seen  where  these 
great  exchanges  are  made. 

They  saw  hundreds  of  large  and  heavy 
wagons,  some  drawn  by  two  horses,  some 
by  four,  some  by  six,  driven  in  all  direc- 
tions, carrying  loads  from  these  ware- 
houses and  stores  to  ships  or  railroad 
cars,  and  bringing  loads  from  ships  and 
cars  to  the  warehouses  and  stores. 

On  some  streets  were  seen  vegetable  and  fruit 
markets  filling  up  whole  blocks.  On  others  there 
were  markets  for  the  sale  of  meat,  fish,  eggs,  but- 
ter, cheese,  and  other  articles  of  food. 

The  stores  were  full  of  clerks.  Some  were  sell- 
ing goods,  and  others  writing  at  desks.  In  some 
stores  more  than  a  hundred  clerks  were  occupied 
in  this  way. 

In  one  very  high  building  they  found,  on  the 
upper  floor,  nearly  a  hundred  people  all  working 
at  the  same  time  on  telegraph  instruments,  mak- 
ing a  noise  that  was  almost  deafening,  while  a 
great  many  boj-^s  in  blue  uniforms  were  seen  hur- 
rying along  the  streets  with  messages  for  the 
people  who  live  in  the  city. 

In  every  block  in  some  parts  of  the  city  were 
found  banks,  express  offices,  insurance  offices,  and 
real  estate  offices,  filled  with  a  busy  lot  of  pro- 
prietors and  clerks. 

The  boys  began  to  count  the  hotels,  but  stopped 
when  told  that  there  were  several  hundred  of 
them.  In  a  large  commercial  city  there  must 
always  be  many  hotels  to  accommodate  the  peo- 
ple who  visit  the  city  to  buy  and  sell  goods. 
Some  of  these  hotels  are  very  large  and  beautiful. 


CITIES  AND   TOWNS. 


8i 


and  richly  funiislied.  The  picture  shows  you  the 
open  space  that  may  be  seen  on  the  interior  of 
one  of  them.     Such  a  space  is  called  a  court. 

Before  night  the  boys  had  grown  tired  with 
sight-seeing,  with  the  din  of  wagons  on  the 
streets,  and  the  rush  of  people  on  the  pavements; 
but  they  had  learned  some  things  about  a  com- 
mercial city  that  they  would  never  forget. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  What  is  commerce? 

2.  After  reading  this  lesson  through  carefully, 


close  the  book  ahd  write,  in  your  own  language, 
what  you  can  remember  of  the  things  to  be  seen 
in  a  commercial  city.  Bring  this  to  the  class  to 
read. 

3.  From  the  open  book,  write,  in  a  column,  all 
the  articles  of  commerce  that  are  mentioned  in  the 
lesson.  In  another  column  write  all  the  other 
articles  of  commerce  that  you  can  think  of  Bring 
this,  also,  to  the  class  to  read. 

4,  Name  all  the  classes  of  people  that  you  can 
think  of  who  help  in  the  business  of  commerce, 
such  as  merchants,  clerks,  etc. 


CITIES    AND    TOWNS. 

[Have  pupils  write  a  description  of  their  own  town  or 
neighborhood.  Include  the  direction  and  distance  from 
San  Erancisco  and  Sacramento  by  the  usual  routes  of 
travel.  Many  of  the  descriptions  below  were  written 
for  this  book  by  the  pupils  of  schools  in  the  towns 
described.  The  distances  from  San  Francisco  are  the 
distances  by  rail,  except  where  otherwise  stated.  The 
map  questions  should  be  studied  before  the  description 
of  towns.  It  is  not  intended  that  these  descriptions 
shall  be  memorized.] 

I.  San  Francisco  and  Suburban  Towns. 

San  Francisco  is  situated  at  the  northern  end 
of  a  peninsula  which  is  washed  on  the  west  by 
the  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  north  by  the  Golden 
Gate,  and  on  the  east  by  San  Francisco  Bay. 
The  city  stands  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  penin- 
sula, though  the  unoccupied  land  belonging  to 
it  extends  westward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  and 
embraces  the  whole  county  of  San  Francisco. 
The  first  settlement  was  made  here  in  1777,  by 
the  Spaniards,  who  gave  it  the  name  of  Yerba 
Buena  (bwa'na)  {good  herb).  Seventy  years  after- 
ward the  name  was  changed  to  San  Francisco. 
The  city  is  chiefly  distinguished  as  a  commercial 
city,  and,  though  ninth  in  population  among 
the  cities  of  the  United  States,  it  ranks  fourth  in 
commerce.     Its  importance  as  a  manufacturing 


CALIFORNIA 


A  View  in  Golden  Gate  Park. 


city  is  also  great,  tlie  larger  part  of  the  manu- 
factures of  the  state,  except  lumber,  flour,  and 
liquors,  being  produced  here.  The  principal 
business  streets  are  Market,  Kearny,  Montgom- 
ery, and  Sansome. 

Golden  Gate  Park  is  the  chief  resort  for  pleas- 
ure. This  park  contains  more  than  i,ooo  acres 
of  land,  most  of  which  is  laid  out  in  beautiful 
grass  plats,  flower  beds,  little  groves  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  shady  walks,  and  fine  roads  for  driving. 
Lately,  a  deer  park  has  been  added,  and  a  large 
space  fitted  up  as  "children's  quarters,"  where 
the  little  folks  amuse  themselves  with  games, 
ride  on  the  merry-go-rounds  or  on  the  donkeys, 
drive  the  goat-carts,  and  enjoy  the  swings,  see- 
saws, spring-boards,  or  the  May-pole.  The  park 
is  reached  from  the  city  by  several  lines  of  cable 
railways. 

Over  40,000  pupils  attend  the  excellent  public 
schools  of  San  Francisco,  and  more  than  12,000 
are  in  attendance  upon  the  private  schools.  In 
one  of  the  high  schools  of  the  city  the  pupils  are 


taught  drawing,  and  modeling  in  cla3^  The 
boys  of  this  school  work  in  wood  and  iron,  and 
the  girls  are  taught  sewing.  Drawing,  modeling, 
and  sewing  are  taught  to  some  extent  in  nearly 
all  the  schools  of  the  city. 

The  population  in  1880  was  234,000.  It  is  now 
estimated  at  315,000.  Oakland,  Alameda,  and 
Berkeley  are  suburban  cities  lying  across  the  bay 
to  the  east,  in  the  county  of  Alameda.  San 
Rafael,  another  suburban  town,  is  in  Marin 
county,  on  the  north  side  of  the  bay.  1 

Oakland,  6  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  its  most  im- 
portant suburb.  From  early  morning  till  late  at  night,  I 
ferry-boats  and  trains  of  cars  carry  passengers  every  fif- 
teen minutes  between  the  two  cities.  A  large  number 
of  people  who  do  business  in  San  PVancisco  reside  in 
Oakland.  The  climate,  like  that  of  most  of  the  cities 
of  the  state  on  the  seacoast,  is  cool  and  pleasant  in  sum- 
mer and  without  excessive  cold  in  winter.  The  city  is 
noted  for  its  healthfulness,  the  beauty  of  its  streets  and 
homes,  its  parks  of  live  oaks,  its  excellent  public  and 
private  schools,  including  a  public  high  school  of  the  first 
rank,  and  its  well  sustained  churches.  It  is  the  seat,  also, 
of  considerable  trade  and  manufacture.     The  site  of  the 


CITIES  AND   TOWNS. 


85 


city  is  generally  level.     The  population  in  1880  was  34,- 
555.     It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  60,000. 

Alameda,  9  miles  from  San  Francisco,  lies  on  the  east 
side  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  south  of  Oakland.  The  cli- 
mate of  Alameda  is  warmer  in  summer  than  that  of  Oak- 
land, though  cooler  in  winter.  It  has  half-hourly  trains 
and  ferry-boats  to  San  Francisco.  It  is  chiefly  a  city  of 
residences,  many  of  which  are  very  handsome.  It  has 
good  public  schools,  good  streets,  stone  sidewalks,  and 
is  lighted  by  electricity.  Its  water  supply  is  derived 
from  artesian  wells.  The  population  in  18S0  was  5,000. 
It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  11,000. 

Berkeley,  10  miles  from  San  Francisco,  lies  north  of 
Oakland,  on  the  same  side  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  and 
directly  opposite  Golden  Gate.  It  is  a  rapidly  growing 
town,  and  contains  the  University  of  California,  nu- 
merous academies,  and  excellent  public  schools.  The 
state  asylum  for  the  blind  and  the  deaf  and  dumb  is  also 
located  in  Berkeley.  Like  Alameda,  Berkeley  is  con- 
nected with  San  Francisco  by  half-hourly  trains.  The 
population  in  1880  was  2,334.  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated 
at  about  5,000. 

San  Rafael,  15  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  favorite 
summer  resort,  and  has  one  of  the  finest  hotels  in  the 
state.  It  is  three  miles  from  San  Pablo  Bay,  and  is  noted 
especially  for  its  excellent  water  and  fine  climate.  It 
has  many  fine  residences  and  excellent  public  schools. 
It  is  connected  with  San  Francisco  by  two  railroad  lines 
and  ferries,  which  make  frequent  trips  during  the  day. 
The  population  in  18S0  was  2,300.  It  is  now  (1890)  esti- 
mated at  3,300. 


II.  Thk  Capital  op  the  State. 

Sacramento,  90  miles  from  San  Francisco, 

is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Sacramento 
River,  just  below  the  entrance  of  the  American 
River  into  the  Sacramento.  It  stands  in  the 
midst  of  an  extensive,  fertile,  and  highly  culti- 
vated plain,  producing  orchard  fruits,  grapes, 
grain,  and  hops.  Railroads  extend  from  it  in  five 
directions.  Steamers  of  considerable  size  also 
ascend  the  river  to  this  point.  Manufactures  are 
extensive  and  growing.  The  car  shops  of  the 
Central  Pacific  railroad,  covering,  with  their 
yards,  thirty-six  acres  of  ground,  are  located 
here.     Other  important  manufactures  are  of  flour, 


carriages,  and  malt  liquors.  Sacramento  has  good 
public  schools  and  a  college.  The  capitol  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  public  buildings  in  the 
United  States.  The  population  in  1880  was  21,- 
420.     It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  30,000. 


III.  Towns  and  Cities  North  and  North- 
east FROM  San  Francisco. 

Santa  Rosa,  51  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  situated 
on  the  San  Francisco  and  North  Pacific  railroad,  in  a 
region  producing  a  great  variety  of  fruits  and  grain.  It 
has  an  important  trade  in  fruits  and  wine.  It  is  also 
noted  for  its  excellent  public  and  private  schools.  The 
population  in  1880  was  3,616.  It  is  now  (1890)  esti- 
mated at  7,000. 

Eureka,  216  miles  (by  sea)  from  San  Francisco,  is  a 
seaport  situated  on  Humboldt  Bay.  Its  chief  importance 
arises  from  its  trade  in  lumber,  lumber  products,  wool, 
and  butter.  The  immense  redwood  forests  of  Humboldt 
County  furnish  most  of  its  lumber.  The  population  in 
1880  was  2,639.     It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  6,000. 

Vallejo  (valla'ho),  25  miles  by  water  {2,})  by  railroad) 
from  San  Francisco,  and  the  largest  town  in  Sola'no 
County,  is  at  the  junction  of  Carquinez  (kar  kee'nez) 
Strait  and  Napa  River.  Vallejo  is  finely  located  on  roll- 
ing land,  and  has,  on  Mare  (ma'ra)  Island,  in  front  of 
the  town,  a  United  States  navy  yard,  whose  operations 
employ  many  workmen.  Great  quantities  of  wheat  and 
flour  are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  world  from  its 
extensive  flouring-mills.  Excellent  pressed  brick  and 
terra  cotta  ornaments  for  fronts  of  buildings  are  sent 
from  the  manufactory  there.  The  population  in  1880 
was  6,000.     It  is  now  (1890)  about  the  same. 

Napa  City,  46  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  situated  in 
the  southern  part  of  one  of  the  most  important  grape- 
growing  regions  of  the  state.  It  is  located  on  Napa 
River  at  the  head  of  tide  water,  and  connects  with  San 
Francisco  both  by  water  and  rail.  It  communicates  also 
by  telegraph  and  telephone.  It  has  a  mild  climate,  and 
is  the  center  of  an  extensive  fruit  and  berry  region. 
Napa  is  about  six  miles  from  Soda  Springs,  and  one 
mile  from  one  of  the  state  asylums  for  the  insane.  The 
Veterans'  Home,  an  institution  for  the  care  of  disabled 
soldiers,  is  located  eight  miles  from  Napa  City,  in  Napa 
County.  The  important  industries  are  tanning,  manu- 
facture of  flour,  woolen  goods,  glue,  and  wine.  The 
manufacture  of  wine  is  the  chief  of  these.  The  popula- 
tion in  1880  was  3,731.  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at 
5,500. 


86 


CALIFORNIA. 


Woodland,  86  miles  from  San  Francisco,  lies  about  six 
miles  west  of  the  Sacramento  River,  in  a  beautiful  grove 
of  natural  oaks.  Large  vineyards,  wheat  fields,  and 
clover  meadows  are  the  chief  features  of  the  surround- 
ing country.  The  chief  trade  is  in  wheat,  and  the  prin- 
cipal manufactures  are  woolen  goods,  flour,  malt  liquors, 
wine,  and  brandy.  The  buildings  are  generally  handsome 
and  the  streets  wide  and  clean.  The  town  is  lighted  by 
electricity.  The  population  in  1880  was  2,257.  It  is  now 
(1890)  estimated  at  4,500. 

Marysville,  142  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  pleasant 
town,  situated  in  a  fertile  region  between  the  Yuba  and 
Feather  Rivers  at  their  junction.  Most  of  the  grain 
from  the  surrounding  country  is  shipped  from  this  point, 
which  is  also  the  center  of  quite  an  extensive  fruit  pro- 
ducing region.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  of  woolen 
goods,  flour,  and  machinery.  The  canning  of  fruit  is 
also  an  important  industry.  The  Feather  River  is  nav- 
igable to  this  place,  all  the  year,  for  light  draught 
steamers,  which  run  between  this  city  and  San  Francisco. 
The  streets  are  broad  and  well  graded.  The  city  is 
lighted  by  electricity.  The  population  in  1880  was 
4,341.     It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  about  6,000. 

Chico,  186  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  the  largest 
town  in  Butte  County.  It  is  located  on  the  California 
and  Oregon  railroad,  about  six  miles  east  of  the  Sacra- 
mento River.  It  is  a  beautiful,  well  built  city,  in  the 
center  of  a  fertile  region  of  great  extent.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  lumber,  which  is  brought  from  the  Sierra  Nevada 
Mountains  in  a  flume  forty  miles  long.  Its  manufactur- 
ing establishments  are  foundries,  wagon  shops,  flouring- 
mills,  and  fruit  canneries.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  wheat 
and  fruit.  Chico  has  excellent  public  and  private 
schools.  Here,  also,  is  located  one  of  the  three  State 
Normal  Schools.  The  population  in  1880  was  3,300.  It 
is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  6,000. 

Redding,  234  miles  from  San  Francisco,  the  largest 
town  in  Shasta  County,  is  situated  on  the  west  bank  of 
the  Sacramento  River,  and  on  the  line  of  the  California 
and  Oregon  railroad.  The  town  is  chiefly  supported  by 
the  industries  of  agricultm-e  and  of  placer  and  quartz 
mining.  The  last  is  rapidly  increasing  in  importance. 
The  population  in  1880  was  900.  It  is  now  (1890)  esti- 
mated at  3,000. 

Nevada  City,  166  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a 
pleasant  mountain  town,  situated  on  a  clear  stream  of 
running  water.  It  was  formerly  an  important  mining 
town,  and  still  possesses  rich  mineral  resources.  The 
public  schools  have  an  excellent  reputation.  The  pop- 
ulation in  1880  was  4,022. 

Grass    Valley,    161    miles    from    San    Francisco,    is 


situated  in  Nevada  County,  about  five  miles  from  the 
county  seat.  Its  quartz  mines  are  the  most  productive 
in  the  state,  and  are  the  chief  source  of  its  wealth. 
Much  attention  is  given  to  public  schools.  The  popu- 
lation in  1880  was  4,500. 


IV.  Towns  South,  East,  and  Southeast 
FROM  San  Francisco. 

San  Jose,  46  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  located  in 
the  rich  valley  of  Santa  Clara.  This  valley  was  among 
the  first  in  the  state  to  be  put  into  cultivation,  and  is  now 
very  highly  improved.  The  country  about  San  Jos^  is 
covered  with  orchards  and  vineyards.  Prunes,  apricots, 
peaches,  pears,  cherries,  grapes,  and  berries  are  raised 
in  abundance  and  of  excellent  quality.  The  ground  on 
which  the  city  stands  is  level,  and  the  buildings  are 
attractive.  It  is  situated  about  six  miles  from  the  south- 
ern end  of  San  Francisco  Bay,  which  removes  it  from 
the  fogs  of  the  seacoast,  but  not  beyond  the  cooling  airs 
of  the  ocean.  It  has,  therefore,  one  of  the  most  delight- 
ful climates  in  the  state,  and  is  celebrated  for  its  pleasant 
homes  and  beautiful  private  gardens.  It  is  the  seat  of 
the  oldest  Normal  School  of  California.  The  population 
in  1880  was  12,567.     It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  21,000. 

Santa  Clara,  43  miles  from  San  Francisco,  lies  three 
miles  west  of  San  Jose,  in  the  same  county.  It  is  the 
seat  of  Santa  Clara  College  and  of  the  University  of  the 
Pacific.  A  wide  and  beautiful  avenue,  called  The  Ala- 
meda, lined  with  shade  trees,  connects  it  with  San  Josd, 

Santa  Cruz,  121  miles  from  San  Francisco,  situated 
on  the  north  side  of  Monterey  Bay,  is  a  popular  summer 
resort  for  pleasure.  It  has  fine  sea  bathing  and  charming 
drives  in  the  mountains,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  well 
timbered  country.  The  population  in  1880  was  3,900. 
It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  6,000. 

Monterey,  125  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  celebrated 
pleasure  resort,  and  is  situated  on  the  south  side  of  Mon- 
terey Bay,  in  Monterey  County,  having  one  of  the  best 
harbors  in  the  state.  An  eighteen-mile  drive  along  an 
avenue  bordered  by  cypress  trees  is  one  of  its  chief 
attractions  to  visitors.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in 
the  state,  and  was  the  capital  of  California  under  both 
Spanish  and  Mexican  rule.  It  is  also  the  seat  of  the 
old  California  Mission  of  Mt.  Carmel.  The  population 
in  1880  was  1,400.     It  is  now  (1890)  2,000. 

San  Luis  Obispo,  248  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  sit- 
uated nine  miles  from  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  the 
midst  of  a  picturesque  country  made  up  of  steep  hills 
and  fertile  valleys.  The  climate  is  agreeable,  not  being 
subject  to  extremes  of  heat  or  cold.     The  town  is  lighted 


TOWNS  AND  CITIES. 


87 


"by  electricity,  has  telegraph  and  telephone  communica- 
tions, and  street  railways.  Its  seaport  is  Port  Harford, 
-with  which  it  is  connected  by  rail.  The  city  is  built  on 
the  site  of  the  old  Mission  of  San  Luis  Obispo  de  Tolosa, 
which  was  founded  in  1772.  The  population  in  1880  was 
2,500.     It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at  3,800. 

Santa  Barbara,  285  miles  (by  sea)  from  San  Francisco, 
is  situated  upon  a  channel  of  the  same  name.  It  is  noted 
for  its  mild  climate,  which  attracts  many  people  who  wish 
to  escape  cold  winters  and  hot  summers.  It  has  a  safe 
liarbor,  easy  of  access,  and  is  connected  with  San  Fran- 
cisco by  a  line  of  steamers  and  by  the  Southern  Pacific 
railroad.  Near  the  city  are  found  the  most  celebrated 
■olive  orchards  in  the  state,  and  the  largest  bearing  wal- 
nut orchard  in  America.  Lima  beans  are  a  leading 
-product  of  the  surrounding  country,  and  over  1,000,000 
pampas  plumes  are  sent  from  here  annually.  The  pop- 
ulation in  1880  was  3,460.  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at 
^bout  9,000. 

Stockton,  91  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  situated  on 
•Stockton  Slough,  a  short  branch  of  the  San  Joaquin 
River.  This  slough  is  navigable  for  steamers,  which 
Ascend  the  river  from  San  Francisco.  Stockton  is  sur- 
Tounded  by  a  fertile  wheat  and  fruit  region,  and  has  a 
large  trade  in  wheat  and  wool.  Its  manufacturing  inter- 
ests are  of  the  first  importance.  Natural  gas,  recently 
discovered,  supplies  abundant  light  and  fuel.  One  of  the 
state  asylums  for  the  insane  is  located  here.  The  public 
schools,  including  an  excellent  high  school  which  pre- 
pares students  for  the  State  University,  are  among  the 
Tsest  in  the  state.  Stockton  is  rapidly  growing.  The 
population  in  1880  was  10,000.  It  is  now  (1890)  esti- 
anated  at  15,000. 

Modesto,  114  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  clean, 
pleasant  town,  situated  in  a  large  and  fertile  plain,  mostly 
•devoted  to  raising  wheat.  It  is  important  as  the  ship- 
ping point  for  the  products  of  the  rich  country  that  lies 
around  it.  The  population  in  18S0  was  1,700.  It  is  now 
{1890)  estimated  at  3,500. 

Fresno,  207  miles  from  San  Francisco,  in  the  valley 
of  the  San  Joaquin  River,  is  the  center  of  the  chief  raisin 
growing  region  of  the  state,  and  is  also  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  flour.  The  country  around  Fresno  has 
been  largely  settled  by  colonies,  whose  members  own 
and  cultivate  small  tracts  of  land.  In  this  way  it  has 
become  thickly  settled  and  highly  productive.  P'or  a 
number  of  years  Fresno  has  had  a  rapid  growth  in  pop- 
ulation and  prosperity.  The  site  of  the  town  is  level, 
and  the  climate  in  summer  is  very  warm.  The  popula- 
tion in  1880  was  2,000,  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at 
10,000. 

Visalia,  248  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  flourishing 


town  situated  in  the  midst  of  a  rich  farming  region. 
The  leading  occupations  of  the  surrounding  country  are 
fruit  culture,  stock  raising,  wheat  growing,  and  lumber- 
ing. The  population  in  iS8owas  1,412.  It  is  now  (1890) 
estimated  at  3,000. 

Bakersfield,  314  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  region  of  country,  in  which  the 
principal  industries  are  stock  raising,  dairying,  and  fruit 
growing,  the  principal  fruits  being  grapes,  prunes,  apri- 
cots, almonds,  and  oranges.  The  rainfall  is  light,  and 
the  land  is  chiefly  watered  by  irrigation  from  Kern  River. 
It  has  a  fine  water  power  and  considerable  mineral  re- 
sources. The  population  in  1880  was  1,500.  It  is  now 
(1890)  estimated  at  3,000. 

Los  Angeles,  482  miles  from  San  Francisco,  was  first 
settled  more  than  one  hundred  years  ago  by  a  few 
Spanish  families  from  the  Mission  of  San  Gabriel,  a  few 
miles  distant.  The  city  is  built  on  a  gentle  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Madre  Mountains,  about  350  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  midway  between  the  sea  and  the  mountains,  being 
about  fourteen  miles  distant  from  each.  The  Los  Angeles 
River  flows  south  through  the  city,  dividing  it  nearly  in 
the  center.  The  climate  of  Los  Angeles  is  famed  for  its 
agreeableness.  In  summer  the  cool  breezes  from  the 
Pacific  Ocean  relieve  it  from  excessive  heat,  and  in  win- 
ter the  surrounding  mountains  protect  the  city  from  the 
cold  winds  of  the  north.  Orchards  of  the  orange,  lemon, 
lime,  banana,  pomegranate,  and  all  kinds  of  deciduous 
fruit  trees  are  found  in  the  suburbs.  Thousands  of  orange 
trees  and  grapevines  are  scattered  through  the  city,  and 
flowers  bloom  here  all  the  year  round.  The  chief  ex- 
ports are  dried  and  fresh  fruits,  wool,  and  hides.  During 
the  orange  season  seventy-five  cars  loaded  with  oranges 
often  leave  the  city  in  one  day.  Many  lines  of  railway 
diverge  from  Los  Angeles,  making  it  the  central  com- 
mercial point  for  Southern  California  and  much  of  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico.  Its  nearest  seaport  is  San  Pedro, 
twenty-five  miles  distant.  The  city  has  several  cable 
systems  of  street  railroad,  one  electric  railway,  and  more 
than  fifty  miles  of  horse-car  road.  It  is  the  seat,  also,  of 
one  of  the  State  Normal  Schools.  Since  1884  the  varied 
advantages  of  Los  Angeles  have  attracted  a  large  immi- 
gration of  people,  chiefly  from  the  Eastern  States.  Most 
of  its  handsome  public  buildings,  business  blocks,  and 
private  residences  have  been  erected,  and  its  many  miles 
of  street  railway  constructed,  since  that  time.  The  popu- 
lation in  1880  was  11,000.  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated  at 
60,000. 

Pasadena,  492  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  a  flourish- 
ing town  of  Los  Angeles  County,  situated  about  seven 
miles  from  the  city  of  Los  Angeles.  It  is  connected 
with  Los  Angeles  by  a  line  of  street  cars  and  two  lines 


88 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 


Bee  Farm  near  San  Diego. 

of  railroad.  Though  laid  out  since  1880,  it  has  grown 
into  a  well  built  and  beautiful  town.  The  country  about 
Pasadena,  as  well  as  generally  through  Los  Angeles 
County,  is  rich,  highly  improved,  and  well  watered  by 


irrigation.     The  population  of  Pasadena  is  now  (1890) 
estimated  at  7,000. 

San  Bernardino,  542  miles  from  San  Francisco,  has  a. 
beautiful  situation  on  a  high  plain,  which  slopes  gently 
toward  the  southwest  at  the  foot  of  the  San  Bernardino 
Mountains.  It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  state. 
Gardens,  orchards,  and  vineyards  surround  the  town, 
which  is,  also,  the  center  of  a  considerable  mining 
region.  Its  trade  in  wine,  wool,  and  barley  is  consider- 
able. The  population  in  1880  was  1,600.  It  is  now 
(1890)  estimated  at  7,000, 

Riverside,  554  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  an  impor- 
tant town  of  San  Bernardino  County,  about  twelve  miles 
south  of  San  Bernardino,  and  was  founded  in  1870.  The 
country  about  Riverside  is  particularly  adapted  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  orange,  and  Riverside  oranges  are 
widely  known.  Figs,  grapes,  and  other  semi-tropical 
fruits  also  flourish  here.  As  in  most  California  towns, 
much  interest  is  taken  in  the  public  schools.  The  popu- 
lation in  1880  was  about  500.  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated 
at  6,000. 

San  Diego,  608  miles  from  San  Francisco,  is  the  most, 
important  town  on  the  seacoast  south  of  San  Francisco. 
It  is  situated  on  San  Diego  Bay,  which  furnishes  an  ex- 
cellent harbor.  It  is  an  old  city,  having  been  founded 
in  1835,  and  within  the  last  few  years  has  had  a  rapid 
growth.  It  is  a  favorite  resort  for  invalids,  and  its 
hotels  furnish  attractive  quarters  for  tourists.  The 
great  honey  producing  region  of  the  state  is  in  the 
vicinity  of  San  Diego.  Productive  mines  of  gold  and 
silver  have  been  recently  opened  in  the  county.  The 
population  in  1S80  was  2,700.  It  is  now  (1890)  estimated, 
at  20,000. 


BRITISH   AMERICA. 


QUESTIONS  ON  THE  MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map.] 

1.  Position  and  Extent. — In  what  part  of  North 
America  is  the  Dominion  of  Canada?  Between  what 
ocean  north  and  what  country  south  does  it  lie?  What 
ocean  east?  What  ocean  and  land  west?  Name  all  the 
waters  that  form  part  of  the  southern  boundary  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada.  What  part  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
lies  wholly  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada — the  upper  part 
or  lower  part? 

2.  Mountains. — What  mountain  system  of  the  United 


States  is  found  also  in  the  Dominion  of  Canada?  In 
what  part  of  the  Dominion?  In  what  direction  does  it 
extend? 

3.  Slopes  and  Rivers. — In  traveling  from  Lake 
Nlp'igon  to  Toronto  by  land  would  you  go  mostly  up  hill 
or  down?  Why  do  you  think  so?  In  traveling  by 
land  from  Toronto  to  Quebec  would  you  go  mostly  up 
hill  or  down?  Why  do  you  think  so?  How  many 
river  valleys  lie  between  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the 
Height  of  Land?  Of  what  large  river  valley^  or  basin, 
do  all  these  form  a  part?  In  going  from  the  St.  Law- 
rence River  along  any  of  these  valleys  toward  the  Height 


Government  Buildings  at  Ottawa. 


DESCRIPTION. 

For  Reading: 

If  you  should  travel  northward  beyond  our  own 
country  you  would  enter  the  Dominion  of  Can- 
ada. Here,  along  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  valley  of  the  St.  Lawrence, .  may  be 
seen  populous  cities,  well  cultivated  farms,  and 
thrifty  farmers.  Nearly  all  varieties  of  grain  and 
vegetables  and  many  excellent  fruits  thrive  here. 

Schools  and  colleges  flourish  in  this  part  of  the 
Dominion,  especially  in  the  province  of  Ontario. 

Away  to  the  southeast  of  the  Dominion,  in  the 
valley  of  the  lower  St.  Lawrence  and  along  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  a  hardy  and  indus- 
trious people  are  chiefly  engaged  in  lumbering. 

Still  further  to  the  southeast,  in  the  province 
of  Nova  Scotia,  mines  of  coal  and  iron  give 
employment  to  large  numbers  of  the  inhabitants 
and  add  much  to  the  wealth  of  the  people. 

The  Great  Lakes,  which  lie  on  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Dominion,  together  with  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  give  to  Canada  fine  natural 
advantages  for  commerce  with  other  countries. 
The  largest  ocean  steamers  ascend  the  river  to 


Montreal.  Above  this  city  are  swift  rapids,  so 
that  steamboats  are  compelled  to  go  through  a 
canal  on  their  trips  up  the  river.  On  their  down 
trips  they  "run"  the  rapids — an  exciting  and 
sometimes  perilous  adventure.  In  addition  to 
these  natural  advantages  the  Canadians  have 
built  a  system  of  railroads  reaching  from  Halifax, 
in  Nova  Scotia,  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  Canada  is 
thus  a  country  of  great  commercial  importance. 


"Running"  the  Lachine  Rapids. 

As  you  go  northward  beyond  the  Height  of 
Land  and  enter  the  Arctic  Plain  the  cHmate  grows 
severely  cold,  and  the  farmer  rapidly  gives  way  to 
the  hunter  and  trapper.  For  more  than  200  years 
these  hardy  and  adventurous  people  have  roamed 


BRITISH  AMERICA. 


91 


over  that  part  of  British  America  lying  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  Hudson  Bay,  tempted 
by  the  rich  furs  of  the  otter,  mink,  beaver,  and 
other  animals  that,  in  cold  countries,  contribute 
so  much  to  the  comfort  of  mankind. 


Fur  Trader's  House. 


West  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  the  province 
of  British  Columbia,  there  are  extensive  coal 
fields  and  rich  gold  mines.  They  are  found  on 
and  near  Vancouver  Island,  in  the  southwest 
comer  of  the  province.  Nearly  the  entire  popu- 
lation of  the  province  is  found  in  this  part  of  it. 
The  attractive  city  of  Victoria  is  its  capital. 

Montreal  is  the  largest  and  wealthiest  city  of 
the  Dominion.  Toronto  ranks  second  in  size  and 
wealth.  Quebec  is  the  oldest  city,  and  has  a  his- 
tory of  greater  interest  than  that  of  any  other. 

The  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada  are 
united  under  a  government  of  their  own,  but  all 
Ijelong  to  Great  Britain.  The  chief  ruler  is  called 
a  Governor-General,  and  is  appointed  by  the 
Crown  of  Great  Britain.  Ottawa,  in  the  province 
of  Ontario,  is  the  capital  of  the  United  Provinces 
of  the  Dominion.  The  buildings  erected  here 
for  the  Canadian  parliament  are  the  finest  in 
North  America.  The  government  is  in  many 
respects  like  that  of  the  United  States. 


Just  northeast  of  Nova  Scotia  lies  the  province 
of  Newfoundland.  This  is  also  a  British  prov- 
ince, though  not  belonging  to  the  Dominion  of 
Canada.  The  waters  of  the  surrounding  sea  are 
the  chief  source  of  wealth  to  the  people  of  this 
island.  Upon  these  waters  may  be  seen  the  white 
sails  of  hundreds  of  fishing  vessels  engaged  in 
catching  herring,  which  are  taken  in  immense 
quantities. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  Where  are  the  cities,  farms,  schools,  and 
colleges  of  Canada  chiefly  found? 

2.  What  grows  abundantly  in  the  valley  of  the 
lower  St.  Lawrence  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast? 
Why  do  you  think  so  ? 

3.  Where  are  mines  of  coal  and  iron  found? 

4.  The  commerce  of  Canada  is  important,  and 
is  carried  on  by  means  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River 
and  the  Great  Lakes,  and  by  a  system  of  railroads 
that  reaches  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the 
Pacific. 

5.  North  of  the  Height  of  Land  the  climate  is 
extremely  cold,  and  the  occupation  of  the  people 
is  chiefly  hunting  and  trapping. 

6.  British  Columbia  is  rich  in  coal  and  gold. 
The  mines  are  on  or  near  Vancouver  Island,  in 
the  southwest  part. 

7.  Give  the  chief  distinction  of  Montreal, 
Toronto,  Quebec,  Ottawa. 

8.  The  provinces  of  British  America,  except 
Newfoundland,  are  united  under  one  govern- 
ment, called  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  The 
chief  officer  is  a  Governor-General,  appointed  by 
the  Crown  of  Great  Britain.  What  is  meant  by 
the  "Crown"  of  Great  Britain? 

9.  Newfoundland  is  a  British  province,  but 
does  not  belong  to  the  Dominion  of  Canada.  It 
depends  for  its  wealth  mainly  upon  its  herring 
fisheries. 


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MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


93 


shores  of  Central  America?  What  waters  surround  the 
West  Indies? 

Mountains. — Name  the  mountains  running  through 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  Of  what  mountain  sys- 
tem are  they  an  extension?    [See  Map  of  North  America.] 

Climate. — In  what  zones  is  Mexico?  In  what  part  of 
these  zones?  In  what  zone  are  its  principal  cities?  In 
what  zone  are  the  Central  American  states?  Would  you 
think  it  warmer  near  the  coast  or  in  the  mountains? 
Why? 


States  and  Cities. — What  is  the  capital  of  Mexico? 
In  what  part  of  the  country?  Where  is  the  city  of  Vera 
Cruz  (va'ra  kroos)?  On  what  waters  would  you  sail, 
and  in  what  direction  from  New  Orleans  to  Vera  Cruz? 
Beginning  with  Guatemala,  write,  in  a  column,  the 
names  of  the  Central  American  states.  In  another  col- 
umn, opposite  each,  write  its  capital.  Do  the  same  with 
the  four  largest  islands  of  the  West  Indies. 

Pronunciations.— CSs'ta  Ri-ca  ;  Hon  du'ras ;  Madre ;  Ma  na' 
gua;  Nic  ar  a'gua;  Po  po  ca  ta  pStl';  Ri'o  Grau'de;  Yu  ca  tan^ 


MEXICO   AND   CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


For  Reading: 

Let  us  sail  from  New  Orleans  and  enter  Mexico 
at  Vera  Cruz.  This  is  its  principal  seaport.  It 
is  a  strange  looking  city.  Yellow  domes  and 
steeples,  with  patches  of  green,  pink,  scarlet,  and 
blue  upon  them,  first  attract  our  attention.  Most 
of  the  houses  have  flat  roofs,  and  are  painted  white 
or  yellow,  and  grass  grows  in  the  cracks  of  the 
pavements. 

Along  this  eastern  coast  of  Mexico  the  land, 
for  sixty  or  seventy  miles  back,  is  low,  and  the 
climate,  as  we  should  expect  to  find  it  in  the 
Torrid  Zone,  is  hot.  As  we  travel  up  and  down 
this  narrow  strip  we  find  the  half  naked  people 
engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar  cane,  cotton, 
coifee,  indigo,  bananas,  oranges,  and  pineapples. 

Going  west  across  this  narrow  strip,  so  low  and 
hot,  we  enter  the  interior  of  the  country  by  climb- 
ing the  mountain  side  to  the  height  of  a  mile  and 
1  half  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  If  we  start 
from  Vera  Cruz  we  go  in  railroad  cars,  but  from 
other  points  on  the  coast  our  way  will  be  by  mule 
])aths.  At  this  height  we  find  a  great  plain,  or 
table -land,  ^  stretching  out  before  us,  which  oc- 

1  Reading  Hour:  Mexico  and  Her  Lost  Provinces,  p.  32,  Mexican 
I'lateau  Products  and  Laborers;  p.  175,  Climbing  PopocatapeU. 


cupies  nearly  all  of  Mexico,   and  here  we  find 
most  of  its  population. 

Here,  although  still  in  the  Torrid  Zone,  the 
climate  becomes  temperate  and  agreeable.  The 
reason  for  this  you  have  already  learned.  Here 
we  shall  see  great  fields  of  com  and  other  prod- 
ucts of  the  Temperate  Zone,  and  laborers,  in 
white  cotton,  plowing  with  wooden  plows  such  as 
were  used  by  the  Egyptians  thousands  of  years  ago. 

A  strange  bug  is  one  of  the  important  produc- 
tions of  this  region.  These  bugs  feed  on  a  cactus 
plant,  and  finally  become  so  numerous  as  to  cover 
the  leaves.  The  Mexicans  then  brush  them  off 
into  bags,  kill  them  in  hot  water,  dry  them,  grind 
them,  and  the  powder  is  the  beautiful  cochineal 
that  we  buy  at  the  drug  stores  for  dyeing. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  great  plain  is  the 
beautiful  City  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  coun- 
try. Gardens  and  orange  groves  surround  it 
and,  outside  of  these,  charming  lakes  sparkle  in 
the  sun,  and  still  further  off  lofty  mountains  rise, 
with  snowy  tops. 

Going  west  from  the  City  of  Mexico,  across  this 
plateau,  with  great  mountains  rising  all  around 
us,  we  gradually  descend  again  to  a  low,  narrow 
plain  which  skirts  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


94 


MEXICO  AND  CENTRAL  AMERICA. 


The  mountain  regions  of  Mexico  contain  many 
volcanoes,  of  whicli  Popocatapetl  is  the  most 
famous.  Among  the  mountains  rich  mines  of 
gold  and  silver  have  been  worked  for  hundreds 
of  years. 

The  country  of  Mexico  is  a  Republic,  of 
twenty»seven  states. 
The  people  are 
mostly  descend- 
ants of  the  early 
Spanish  settlers, 
with  some  native 
Indians,  and  a 
mixture  of  the 
two,  called  Mes- 
ti'zog. 


Cathedral, 


Central  America 
consists  of  small 
states,  unimportant 
and  often  at  war 
wnth  each  other, 
lying  between  Mex- 
ico and  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama.  In  character  the  people  much  resemble 
the  Mexicans.  Most  of  the  work  is  done  by  the 
Indians  and  Mestizos  under  the  direction  of  an  over- 
seer, who  would  lose  caste  were  he,  himself,  to  do 
even  so  much  as  to  carry  a  letter  to  the  post  office. 


2.  The  cHmate  of  the  eastern  strip  is  hot  and 
moist,  of  the  plateau  region  temperate  and  agree- 
able. 

3.  Sugar  cane,  cotton,  coffee,  indigo,  bananas, 
oranges,  and  pineapples  flourish  on  the  low, 
hot  plain  of  the  east,  while  the  usual  produc- 
tions of  the  Temperate  Zone  are  found  on  the 
plateau. 

4.  The  cochineal  bug  is  found  on  the  Mexican 
plateau  in  such  quantities  as  to  be  a  leading 
article  of  commerce. 

5.  The  capital  of  Mexico  is  a  beautiful  city, 
surrounded  by  orange  groves,  gardens,  lakes,  and 
mountains. 

6.  The  mountain  regions  of 
Mexico  contain  many  volcanoes, 
and  are  famous  for  their  mines  of 
gold  and  silver. 

7.  The  government  of  Mexico 
is  republican.  The  people  are 
mainly  of  Spanish  descent,  with 
some  Indians  and  Mestizos. 


Square  of  Santa  Domingo. 


For  Recitation: 

I .  The  countrj^  of  Mexico  consists  of  a  strip  of 
low  land  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  a  great  body 
of  very  high  land  all  through  the  center  from 
north  to  south,  and  a  very  narrow  strip  of  low 
land  along  the  Pacific. 


National  Palace. 


8.  Central  America  consists  of  a  few  small 
and  unimportant  states.  What  is  the  character 
of  the  people,  and  how  is  the  work  done  ?  What 
kind  of  coffee  is  named  for  a  state  of  Central 
America  ? 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


95 


SOUTH   AMERICA. 

[Before  taking  the  reading  lessons  let  the  map  on  the  next  page  be  carefully  studied. 


I.  Naturai.  Divisions  and  Andes  Region. 

For  Reading: 

South  America  consists  of  the  Andes  Mountain 
region  on  the  west  and  a  vast  plain,  with  here  and 
there  a  short,  low  mountain  range,  sloping  east- 
ward to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  This  plain  consists 
chiefly  of  the  Amazon,  Orinoco,  and  La  Plata 
valleys. 

Start  on  the  map  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
Andes  Mountains  and  trace  them  northward. 
Until  you  reach  the  northern  part  of  Chili  you 
find  them  narrow,  consisting  of  only  a  single  chain. 
Then  they  begin  to  spread  out  into  a  number 
of  chains,  that  run  through  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and 
have  great  table-lands  between  them. 

In  Ecuador  they  all  come  together  again  and 
make  a  line  of  high  volcanoes,  the  famous  Coto- 
])axi  being  the  highest. 

Once  more  they  divide  into  ranges,  one  of  which 
runs  on  through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  the 
other  to  the  Gulf  of  Venezuela. 

These  mountains  are  the  second  highest  in  the 
^vorld,  and  are  very  steep.  Sharp  ridges  and  lofty 
peaks  frequently  project  from  the  table-lands,  and 
between  these  are  chasms  of  frightful  depth. 

The  only  roads^  are  narrow  paths,  and  the 
chasms  are  crossed  by  rope  bridges.  x\  single 
misstep  on  one  of  these  dangerous  paths  would 
send  the  traveler  down  the  precipice. 

Where  animals  can  be  used,  they  are  mules  and 
r..a'ma§,  the  latter  being  among  the  native  ani- 
mals of  this  region.  Often,  however,  travelers 
nmst  be  carried  in  chairs  strapped  to  the  backs 
of  native  Indians. 

I  Reading  Hour:    World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  142,  Crossing  the  Andes. 
Owr  IVorld  Reader,  p.  65,  Travel  in  the  Andes. 


Like  the  western  mountains  of  North  America, 
the  Andes  contain  large  quantities  of  gold  and 
silver  and  other  valuable  minerals. 

The  climate  of  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean  is  what  the  Andes  Mountains  make 
it.  Though  much  of  the  country  lies  in  the  very 
center  of  the  Torrid  Zone,  the  climate  is  cool  and 
agreeable,  except  in  some  places  at  the  foot  of 
the  mountains,  where  it  is  hot  and  moist,  as  in 
the  low  lands  of  Mexico. 

But  little  rain  falls  anywhere  except  northward 
from  Peru.^  Do  you  wonder  what  the  mountains 
have  to  do  with  the  rainfall?  The  winds  of  this 
region  are  all  from  the  east,  and  the  mountains 
south  of  Ecuador  are  so  high  that  the  clouds, 
loaded  with  rain,  cannot  get  across;  nevertheless, 
a  fog  that  rises  from  the  Pacific  carries  consider- 
able moisture  over  the  narrow  strip  of  land  at  the 
western  foot  of  the  Andes,  and  this  gives  great 
fertility  to  its  soil. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.   Copy  and  learn  the  first  paragraph. 

2.  Of  what  do  the  Andes  Mountains  consist  in 
the  southern  part  of  South  America?  Describe 
them  in  Bolivia  and  Peru.  In  Ecuador.  North 
of  Ecuador. 

3.  Describe  the  mountain  roads.  How  is 
travel  on  them  conducted  ? 

4.  What  of  minerals  in  the  Andes? 

5.  Upon  what  does  the  climate  of  the  Pacific 
countries  depend  ?  How  do  the  mountains  affect 
the  rainfall  in  the  countries  south  of  Peru  ?  How 
do  these  countries  get  their  moisture? 

1  Reading  Hour:  On  the  Amazons  (Camping Out  Series),  p.  21,  Why 
Peru  is  really  an  Atlantic  state. 


ItD.ServoM.Jiijgr.If.y. 


THE   VALLEY  OF    THE  AMAZON. 


97 


QUESTIONS     ON    THE     MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map.] 

Position  and  Extent. — In  which  hemisphere  is 
South  America?  How  are  North  America  and  South 
America  joined?  If  we  sail  from  Aspinwall  around 
South  America  to  Panama,  what  ocean  would  we  leave 
in  passing  around  Cape  Horn?  What  ocean  would  we 
enter?  What  bay  would  we  enter  at  the  end  of  our  voy- 
age? How  many  miles  does  an  inch  of  this  map  stand 
for?  Measure  the  distance  from  Cape  Gallinas  to  Cape 
Horn.  What  is  the  distance  on  the  map  ?  How  many 
miles  of  country  is  that?  Measure  the  distance  from 
Cape  St  Rogue  to  Cape  Blanco.  What  is  the  distance  on 
the  map  ?  How  many  miles  of  country  is  that  ?  How 
long,  then,  is  South  America  from  north  to  south? 
How  long  from  east  to  west? 

Mountains. — What  is  a  mountain  system?  What  is 
a  mountain  chain?  Where  do  you  find  the  great  mount- 
ain system  of  South  America?  What  is  its  name? 
Where  do  you  find  other  mountains  in  South  America? 

Si^oPES,  Rivers,  and  River  Vai^i^eys. — What  is  a 
river  system?  What  is  a  river  valley,  or  basin?  How 
can  you  tell  on  the  map  which  way  a  valley  slopes?  On 
which  side  of  the  Andes  Mountains  do  the  great  rivers 
of  South  America  rise?  To  what  ocean  do  they  find 
their  way? 

Describe  the  Amazon  River.  (See  model,  P34.)  On 
which  side  of  the  Amazon  are  its  tributaries  longest? 
What  reason  do  you  see  for  this?  What  is  the  region 
lirained  by  the  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  called?  In 
what  direction  does  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  slope? 
In  what  direction  do  the  valleys  of  its  southern  trib- 
utaries slope?  With  your  pencil  trace  a  line  around  the 
valley  of  the  Amazon.  In  the  large  valley  of  the  Ama- 
.zon  find  six  smaller  river  valleys^  and  write  their 
names.  Point  out  and  give  the  direction  of  ten  slopes  in 
the  valley  of  the  Amazon.  Is  the  mouth  of  the  fapura 
(hapoo'ra)  River  in  the  upper  or  lower  part  of  the  val- 


ley? Why  do  you  think  so?  Is  the  mouth  of  the  Xinju 
{shinggoo)  in  the  upper  or  lower  part  of  the  valley? 
Why  do  you  think  so?  Which  is  higher,  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco,  or  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon?  hi  going  from 
Manaos  to  Obi'dos,  would  you  go  up  hill  or  down? 

Describe  the  Orinoco  River.  What  country  does  the 
river  drain  ?  On  which  side  of  the  Equator  is  the  Orinoco 
Valley.     Trace  a  line  around  the  valley  of  the  Orinoco. 

What  are  the  principal  tributaries  of  the  La  Pla'ta? 
Near  what  parallel  of  latitude  does  the  valley  begin?  In 
which  direction  does  it  slope?  Trace  a  line  around  the 
valley  of  the  La  Plata. 

Climate. — In  what  zones  is  South  America?  In  what 
zone-is  the  larger  part  of  it?  In  what  zone  is  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon?     Of  the  La  Plata? 

Countries  and  Towns. — What  countries  lie  mainly 
in  the  Andes  System?  What  large  country  lies  mostly 
in  the  valley  of  the  Amazon?  What  countries  are  found 
chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  La  Plata?  Beginning  at  the 
north,  write  in  a  column  the  names  of  all  countries 
bordering  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  opposite  each,  in 
another  column,  the  name  of  its  capital.  Do  the  same 
with  the  countries  bordering  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The 
same  with  the  countries  that  have  no  seacoast.  Read 
from  the  map  the  boundaries  of  all  the  coutttries  whose 
names  you  have  written.  In  sailing  around  South 
America  from  Aspinwall  to  Panama,  what  important 
seaports  should  we  pass  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  What 
on  the  Pacific?  What  is  usually  the  chief  occupation  of 
people  in  large  seaport  towns? 

Thought  Que.stions. — In  the  valley  of  the  Ama- 
zon would  you  expect  to  find  the  vegetation  large  and 
strong,  or  thin  and  weak?  Why?  The  wild  animals 
harmless,  or  fierce  and  dangerous?  Why?  In  what 
part  of  river  valleys  would  you  expect  to  find  the  land 
most  fertile? 

Pronuxciations.— Ar'gen  tine;  Bahia  (ba  e'a)  Bo  go  ta';  Bra  zil'; 
Buenos  Ayres  (bo'nus  a'riz);  Cal  la  o;  Ca  ra'cas;  Cayenne';  Chili; 
Ec  ua  dor';  Guayaquil  (gwi  a  keel');  Gui(ghe)a'na;  Li'ma;  Mon  ter 
vid' e  o;  Paramaribo:  Qui'(ke)to;  Ri'o  Ja  nei'(ne)ro;  San  ti  a'go; 
Val  pa  rai'(ri)so;  Ven  ez  ue'(we)la;  Uruguay  (00  roo  gui'). 


II.  The  Valley  of  the  Amazon. 

For  Reading: 

Travelers  have  always  been  much  interested  in 
';he  Valley  of  the  Amazon.^  For  one  thing,  it 
:'s  the  largest  river  valley  in  the  world.  The 
great  river  itself  rises  within  sight  of  the  Pacific 


Ocean,  flows  across  the  whole  width  of  the  Grand 
Division,  and  finally  empties  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  more  water  than  runs  from  any  other 
river  in  the  world.     The  rivers,  also,  that  flow 

1  Reading  Hour:  Brazil,  Amazons,  by  Smith;  p.  2,  Water  of  the 
Amazon;  p.  4,  Moisture;  pp.  82-86,  Rubber  gathering;  pp.  140-144, 
United  States  settlers  in  the  Valley  of  the  Amazon. 

On  the  Amazons  (Camping  Out  Series),  p.  22,  Gales  on  the  river; 
pp.  19,  20,  Scenery  along  the  Amazon;  p.  163,  Cannibal  Indians. 

Afloat  in  the  Forest,  p.  123,  Monkeys. 


98 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


into  the  Amazon  are  long,  and  drain  very  large 
regions  of  country. 

For  anoth- 
er thing,  no 
other      river 
valley  in  the 
world       has 
forests        so 
thick        and 
vast;    climb- 
ing and  flow- 
ering plants, 
with    foliage 
and  blossoms  so  bright  in 
color;    birds   so    strange 
and    numerous    and    so 
brilliant  in  plumage;  and 
no   other   forests   are    so 
filled     with      chattering 
monkeys,  ferocious  beasts, 
and  poisonous  reptiles  as 
these     forests     of     the 
Amazon    Valley,   called 
selvas. 

So  great  are  these  for- 
ests in  extent  that  if 
taken  up  and  placed  in 
the  United  States  they 
would  cover  the  whole 
country  from  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  nearly  to 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 
Let  us  enter  the  valley  through  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon.  We  shall  sail  up  a  stream  that 
spreads  out  over  its  low  banks  into  marshes  and 
side  channels  many  miles  in  width;  along  by  the 
rubber  trees,  with  their  white  trunks  and  shining 
green  leaves;  through  great  orchards  of  ca  ca'o 
trees,  from  whose  fruit  chocolate  is  made,  and  in 
sight  of  the  great  mahoganies,  forty  feet  high  and 
four  or  five  feet  in  diameter,  that  stand  on  the 


Monkeys  Stealing  Eggs. 


higher  land  back  from  the  river.      Through  all ' 
this  region  no  day  in  the  year  is  without  rain, 
and  in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley  the  air  is  so 
damp  that  a  gun  kept  loaded  over  night  can  not 
be  fired  off. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  The  Amazon  is  the  largest  river  valley 
in  the  world. 

2.  More  water  flows  through  the  Amazon  River 
than  through  any  other. 

3.  Vast  forests,  called  selvas,  cover  a  large  part 
of  the  valley. 

4.  In  the  lower  part  of  the  valley  the  river  is 
many  miles  wide,  containing  multitudes  of  low 
islands. 

5.  India  rubber  trees  and  cacao  trees  are  found 
in  great  numbers  on  the  Imnks.  Mahogany  trees 
grow  further  back  from  the  river. 

6.  Thought  Questions. — Would  you  think 
the  air  that  blows  into  this  valley  from  the  sea  a 
moist  or  a  dry  air?  Why?.  A  warm  or  a  cool 
air?  Why?  As  it  goes  on  up  the  mountains 
does  it  become  cooler  or  warmer?  Why?  If  it 
becomes  cooler  what  is  the  effect  upon  the  moist- 
ure ?  Then,  in  what  part  of  the  valley,  the  up- 
per or  lower,  would  you  expect  to  find  the  greater 
rainfall? 


III.    VALI.EYS  OF  THE  ORINOCO  AND  LA  PlATA. 

For  Reading: 

If  you  do  not  remember  where  the  Valley  of 
the  Orinoco  is,  look  once  more  at  the  map.  You 
will  see  that,  like  the  valley  of  the  Amazon,  it 
slopes  to  the  east. 

It  is  separated  from  the  Amazon  Valley  only 
by  the  low  Pari'me(ma)  Mountains.  Indeed,  in 
the  western  part  of  the  valley,  toward  the  source 
of  the  Orinoco  River,  it  is  not  separated  at  all,  the 
water  at  some  seasons  flowing  from  the  Orinoco 
into  the  Amazon,  and  at  others  from  the  Amazon 


VALLEYS  OF    THE   ORINOCO  AND  LA   PLATA. 


99 


into  the  Orinoco,  through  a  river  that  connects 
them. 

In  Vegetation  and  Climate  this  valley  differs 
from  the  Amazon.  Its  plains,  instead  of  being 
covered  with  forests,  are  grassy,  and  are  called 
llanos  (lla'nog).^  Instead  of  daily  rains  there  is 
a  wet  season  and  a  dry  season.  In  the  wet  sea- 
son the  grass  is  green  and  luxuriant;  in  the  dry 
season  the  earth  becomes  hard  and  baked. 

South  of  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  you  have 
found  the  Valley  of  the  La  Plata.''  This  valley, 
you  will  see  from  the  direction  of  its  rivers,  slopes 
to  the  south.  Only  a  slight  elevation  of  land 
separates  it  from  the  Amazon  Vallej^  so  that  the 
Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  La  Plata  Valleys  are  really 
one  great  plain  reaching  from  the  Andes  to  the 
Atlantic,  except  where  the  scattered  ranges  of 
mountains  in  eastern  Brazil  rise  from  them. 

The  Seasons  in  this  southern  valley  are  two — 
a  wet  and  a  dry;  dry  when  it  is  wet  in  California, 
and  wet  when  it  is  dry  here.  The  plains  of  this 
valley  are  covered  with  a  coarse  grass  called 
pampas  (pam'pag). 


For  Recitation: 

III.    I,   Direction  of  the  Orinoco  Valley  from 
the  Amazon  Valley. 

2.  Direction  of  its  slope. 

3.  How  separated   from   the  Amazon  Valley; 
how  united  with  it, 

4.  Vegetation — climate. 

5.  Direction  of  the  valley  of  the  La  Plata  from 
that  of  the  Amazon. 

6.  Direction  of  its  slope. 

7.  Separation  from  the  Amazon  Valley. 

8.  Union  of  the  three  valleys. 

1  Reading  Hour:  World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  114,  Electric  Eel  of  the 
llanos;  p.  137,  Stories  of  the  llanos. 

Our  World  Reader,  p.  82. 

2  Our  World  Reader,  p.  85. 


9.  Seasons  of  the  La  Plata  Valley. 
10.  Vegetation, 


IV,  The  Countries  of  the  Andes, 

The  countries  of  South  America  may  be  divided 
into  the  Countries  of  the  Andes  and  the  Countries 
of  the  Plains.  The  Countries  of  the  Andes  are 
those  that  border  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  including, 
also,  Bolivia,  You  will  notice  that  the  eastern 
part  of  Bolivia  and  Peru  lies  also  in  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon,  and  that  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  of  Colombia  is  drained  by  both  the 
Amazon  and  the  Orinoco, 

Though  these  countries  contain  many  rich 
mines  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper,  which  have  been 
worked  for  hundreds  of  years,  the  principal  occu- 
pation of  their  people  is  agriculture,  and  the  grains 
and  vegetables  and  other  products  of  the  Temper- 
ate Zone  are  raised  here. 

All  the  qui'nine^  in  the  world  comes  from  the 
bark  of  a  tree  in  Bolivia  and  Peru,  and  nearly  all 
the  guano  (gwa'no),  a  valuable  manure  much  used 
in  Europe  and  the  United  States,  is  taken  from  the 
shores  and  islands  of  Peru,  The  dress  goods  that 
we  call  al  p^c'a  are  made  from  the  wool,  or  hair, 
of  the  alpaca,  a  species  of  llama  found  only  in 
Peru. 

The  exports  of  this  region  are  sent  to  market 
mostly  from  the  seaports  of  Guayaquil,  Callao, 
and  Valparaiso. 


For  Recitation: 

IV.    I.    Groups     of     countries — how    many? 
What? 

2.  Situation  of  the  Countries  of  the  Andes, 

3.  Mines  of  these  countries. 

4.  Principal  occupation  and  products.      "Why 

1  Reading  Hour:   World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  121,  A  Quinine  story. 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


do  we  find  products  of  the  Temperate  Zone  in 
the  Torrid  Zone? 

5.  Quinine.     6.  Guano.     7.  Alpaca. 

8.  Seaports. 

V.  The  Countries  of  the  Plains. 


For  Reading: 

The  six  Countries  of  the  Plains,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Venezuela,  are  those  that  lie  wholly- 


east  of  the  Andes  Mountains.  Except  the 
traders  and  merchants,  their  inhabitants  are 
almost  wholly  engaged  in  agriculture  and  stock 
raising.    The  common  productions  [See  page  102.] 

Animals  of  South  America. 
For  Reading  Only: 

Though  The  Llama  belongs  to  the  camel  family,  it 
has  no  hump  and  is  small.  .  The  hair  is  very  woolly,  so 
that  a  llama  looks  much  more  like  a  long-legged,  long- 
necked  sheep  than  like  a  camel.  It  is  used  as  a  beast 
of  burden  in  the  Andes,  and  can  carry  one  hundred 
pounds  fourteen  or  fifteen  miles  a  day.      The  alpaca  is 

a  species  of  llama. The  Armadillo  is  so  named  from 

its  covering  of  bony  scales,  which  it  presents  to  an 
assailant  by  rolling  itself  into  the  shape  of  a  ball,  with 
its  armor  outside.  It  is  a  night  prowler,  sleeping  in 
the  day  time.  Its  legs  are  very  short  and  strong, 
and  it  has  been  seen  running  easily  about  with  three 

monkeys  seated  upon  its  mail-clad  back. The  Tapir 

moves  mostly  at  night,  feeding  on  young  branches,  fruit, 
and  melons.  Its  hide  is  thick  and  tough,  and  not  easily 
injured  by  the  branches  of  trees  among  which  it  pushes. 
Its  great  enemy  is  the  jaguar.  When  this  terrible  animal 
has  fastened  itself  upon  the  tapir's  back,  the  poor  creat- 
ure's only  defense  is  a  rush  through  the  thick  brushwood, 
which  frequently  dislodges  his  foe.  If  this  fails,  and  the 
tapir  can  reach  the  bank  of  a  river  or  pond,  he  plunges 
in  and  the  jaguar  is  obliged  to  let  go  to  escape  drown- 
ing.  The  Ant-eater  is  a  curious  creature,  sleeping  by 

day  and  prowling  by  night.  It  lives  on  trees,  and  feeds 
upon  insects  found  in  the  bark.  These  it  gathers 
with  its  tongue,  which,  when  protruded,  looks  like  a 
great,  red  earth-worm,  and  coils  and  twists  itself  about 

as  if  it  were  some  separate  thing  alive. The  Jag  u  ar' 

is  a  beast  of  the  cat  family,  much  resembling  the  leopard, 
and  is  noted  for  its  ferocity  and  strength.  It  has  been 
known  to  kill  a  horse,  drag  it  sixty  yards  to  a  river, 
swim  the  river  with  it,  and  drag  it  up  the  bank  on  the 
opposite  side  and  into  the  wood.  It  feeds  on  a  variety 
of  animals  and  birds,  but  its  favorite  food  is  the  flesh  of 
the  monkey  and  peccary.  Its  fur  is  fine  and  beautifully 
spotted. The  Boa  Constrictor  is  a  magnificent  rep- 
tile, formerly  held  sacred  and  worshipped  with  divine 
honors.  It  is  often  more  than  twenty  feet  in  length,  and 
kills  its  prey  by  winding  itself  around  it,  squeezing  it  to 

Reading  Hour:  Wood's  Mammalia,  p.  yoo,  The  Llama;  p.  767,  The 
Armadillo;  p.  743,  The  Tapir;  p.  774,  The  Ant-eater;  p.  172,  The 
Jaguar. 

Wood's  Reptiles,  p.  122,  The  Boa  Constrictor;  p.  5,  The  Tortoise;  p. 
75.  The  Iguana. 

Woods  Birds,  p.  13,  The  Condor;  p.  507,  The  Toucan;  p.  745.  The 
Penguin. 


ANIMALS. 


JTJL 


death.      The  skin  of 
the  boa  has  a 
wonder- 
ful power 
of  expan 
sion,  which  en- 
ables the  reptile 
to  swallow   ani 
mals         much 
larger  than  it- 
self.  The  skin 
is  sometimes 
stretched    so 
thin,  when  the 
creature      is 
swallowing  its 
prey,    that     the 
shape  of  its  vic- 
tim can  be  distinctly 
traced  beneath  it.— 
Unlike      other     reptiles, 
The    Tortoise     (tor'tis) 
a  creature  with  the   skeleton       ~'^.;_, 
outside  and  the  soft  parts  inside. 
The    backbone    and   ribs    grow    out 
together  into  large  flat  bones,  which 
form  the  upper  part  of  the  shell  of  the 
tortoise,  and  are  united  like  the  bones 
of  the  head  in  man.     The  breast  bone 
grows  out  in  the  same  way,  and  fornix 
the  shell  on  the  lower  side  of  the  crea- 
ture.    It   closely  resembles   the  com- 
mon turtle.     Its  flesh  and  eggs,  which 
are  a  little  larger  than  pigeon's  eggs, 

are  excellent  food. The   Iguana  is 

a  reptile  of  the  lizard  family,  and  is 
found  only  in  the  western  hemisphere. 
It  is  covered  with  scales,  and  lives 
almost  wholly  in  the  branches  of  trees, 
although  also  quite  at  home  in  the 
water.  Its  flesh  has  a  very  delicate 
flavor,    not  unlike   that    of  a    spring 

chicken. The   Condor  is  the  most 

distinguished  of    the   birds  of    prey, 

being  a  very  giant  among  them.     From 

tip  to  tip  of  its  wings  it  often  measures 

eleven  feet.     It  is  seldom  found  below 

the  line  of  perpetual  snow  in  the  Andes, 

and    comes    down   only  when   driven  by 

hunger.     In  strength,  even  when  wounded 

it  is  more  than  a  match  for  a  man.     In  flight 

the  wings  of  the  condor  are  never  seen   to 

flap  after  it  is  once  up.     With  wings  extended,  it 


sails   for  hours  in  the  sea  of  air  above  the    mountain 
tops,   turning   and  wheeling  by  a  simple  motion  of 
-The  Toucan  belongs  to  the  group  of 
birds   called  climbers.      The   most 
extraordinary  part  of  these  birds 
is  the  enormous  beak.     They  are 
very  social  in  disposition,  keep- 
ing up   among    themselves 
an    incessant    and 
noisy  chat- 
tering. 


Though 

without 

beauty    of 

^^ their     own, 

I^WA^Dl'-^""'  ^jjgy  neverthe- 

less have  a  great  hatred 
of  birds  they  deem  uglier 
than  themselves,   and  will 
often     surround    and    mob 

them. The   Nandu   is    the 

American     species     of   ostrich. 
(See  description  of  ostrich  in  Ani- 
mals   of    Africa.) The    Penguin 

belongs  to  the  family  of  birds   called 
swimmers.      It  lives    by  the  seashore  in 
great    flocks    of    thirty    thousand   or  forty 
thousand.      The    organization    of    this    great 
army    is   very  curious.      The  young     birds     are 
placed  in   one    position,   the    moulting    birds    in 
another,  the    sitting    hens    in    a    third,     and     the 
clean,  or  moulted  birds,  in    a    fourth,   and  should  a 
moulting  bird  come  among  the  last  named  it  is  at  once 
driven   out.      Except  when  in  a  hurry,    the    penguin 
walks  erect,  but  when   frightened,  drops  at    once   for- 
ward,   using  its    wings   as   forelegs,  and  running  with 
great  swiftness. 


Reading  Hour:  Animal  Memoirs, 
Condor;  p.  7,  The  Fish  Hawk. 


The  Giant 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 


of  the  Torrid  Zone — sugar,  coflfee,  cotton — are 
found  in  Venezuela,  Guiana,  and  Brazil.  Nearly 
all  the  coffee  used  in  the  world  comes  from  Brazil. 
Diamonds  are  found  in  her  eastern  mountains  and 
are  exported  in  large  quantities.  Hides  from 
numberless  herds,  in  both  Brazil  and  Venezuela, 
are  also  sent  abroad  to  market. 

From  Brazil,^  also,  comes  nearly  all  the  India 
rubber  that  we  see  in  waterproofs,  shoes,  erasers, 
balls,  bands,  and  other  things.  Along  the  banks 
of  the  Amazon  the  Indians,  half-breeds,  and 
poorer  whites  gather  the  creamy  juice  of  the 
India  rubber  tree,  which  is  a  native  of  the  forests. 
When  gathered  it  is  dried,  hardened  by  fire  into 
crude  rubber,  and  sold  to  the  traders  and  mer- 
chants of  that  country,  who  send  it  to  the  mar- 
kets of  the  world. 

Another  large  occupation  along  the  Amazon 
banks  is  the  cultivation  of  the  cacao  tree,  and 
the  shipping  of  its  berries  to  foreign  countries  to 
manufacture  into  chocolate. 

The  Argentine  Confederation  produces  mostly 
cattle  and  sheep,  sending  abroad  hides,  horns,  and 
wool. 

Paraguay  and  Uruguay  are  unimportant  coun- 
tries. 

The  leading  seaport  towns  of  the  countries  of 
the  plains  are  Georgetown,  Rio  Janeiro,  Monte- 
video, and  Buenos  Ayres,  though  there  are  others 
of  some  importance. 


For  Recitation: 

V.   I .  Situation  of  the  Countries  of  the  Plains. 

2.  Occupations  of  the  people. 

3.  Products  of  the  northern  countries. 

1  Reading  Hour:   World  by  the  Fireside,  p.  113,  India  Rubber. 

On  the  Amazons  (Camping  Out  Series),  p.  24,  Character  of  Bra- 
zilians; p.  38,  Custard  Apple;  pp.  56,  57,  58,  Rubber  Tree  Forests;  p. 
61,  Smoking  Rubber;  p.  131,  Ant-eaters. 

Afloat  in  tlu  Forest,  p.  116,  Brazil  Nuts;  p.  159,  Vegetable  Cow;  p. 
168,  Ants;  p.  185,  Ant-eaters;  p.  196,  Fish  Cow. 


4.  Coffee.    5.  Diamonds.    6.  Hides.    7.  India 
rubber.     8.  Cacao.     9.  Seaports. 


VI.    People — Religion — Government — Edu- 
cation. 

For  Reading: 

The  ruling  People  of  South  America,  except 
in  Guiana,  are  descendants  of  early  Spanish  and 
Portuguese  settlers — of  Portuguese  settlers  in 
Brazil  and  of  Spanish  settlers  elsewhere.  The 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  languages  prevail. 

Great  numbers  of  the  native  tribes  still  remain, 
however,  and  are  employed  in  the  rougher  and 
more  disagreeable  occupations.  Negroes  are  nu- 
merous in  Brazil,  many  of  them  being  held  as 
slaves. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Religion  prevails. 

The  countries  of  South  America,  except  Guiana, 
are  independent  republics.  Guiana  consists  of 
three  European  colonies — one  Dutch,  one  French, 
and  one  English. 

Of  these  countries.  Chili  and  the  Argentine 
Confederation  are  the  most  advanced  in  Educa- 
tion and  commercial  enterprise. 

Brazil  is  the  largest  and  most  powerful  coun- 
try of  South  America,  and  has  more  trade  with 
the  United  States  than  all  the  rest.  One  half  of 
all  its  coflfee  crop  is  sold  in  this  country. 


For  Recitation: 


of 


VI.   I.  Nationality   of    the   ruling    people 
South  America.     2.  Exception. 

3.  Portuguese — where.  4.  Spanish — where. 
5.  Native  tribes — employment.  6.  Negroes — 
condition.     7.  Religion.     8.  Governments. 

9.  Education  and  commerce. 

10.  Commerce  with  the  United  States. 


EUROPE. 


103 


Topical  Review  of  South  America. 

Climate. 

Occupations: 

Wi'ite,  in  yo2ir  own  language,  all  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  South  America  that  yon  know,  using,  as 
a  guide,  the  following  topics: 

People. 
Countries. 

(Farming,  manufacturing, 
mining,  commerce.) 

Animals. 

Position.                            Mountain  Systems. 
Extent.                               Drainage: 

(Slopes  and  rivers.) 

Products: 

(Mineral,    vegetable, 
mal.) 

Cities  and  Towns: 
ani-     (Location,  for  what  noted, 
etc.) 

EUROPE. 


[Before  taking  the  lessons,  "  For  Reading,"  the  map  on  the  next  page  should  be  carefully  studied. 


I.  Why  we  are  Interested  in  Europe. 
For  Reading: 

The  Grand  Division  of  the  Old  World  that  has 
most  in  it  to  interest  us  is  Europe.  Perhaps  you 
wonder  why. 

In  the  first  place,'  we  have  more  trade  with 
Europe  than  with  any  other  Grand  Division. 
Nearly  all  of  the  wheat,  com,  cotton,  coal  oil, 
beef,  and  other  products  that  we  export  goes  to 
Europe,  and  the  fine  goods  for  use  or  for  ornament 
that  we  import  come  chiefly  from  Europe.  Be- 
sides this,  30,000,000  of  Europeans  speak  and 
write  the  same  language  that  we  do. 

More  Americans  visit  Europe  than  any  other 
Grand  Division.  At  some  seasons  of  the  year 
you  may  find  more  Americans  visiting  in  a  single 
city  of  Europe  than  there  are  people  in  some  of 
our  states. 

More  Europeans  come  to  settle  here  among  us 
than  any  other  people.  All  the  Irish,  Germans,' 
French,  Spanish,  Italian  (itaryan),  English,  and 
Scotch  people  that  we  know  came  from  Europe. 

But  more  than  all  the  rest,  this  country  was 
settled  by  Europeans,  and  all  the  white  people 

1  Reading  Hour:  Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  104,  Louise,  the  Child  of 
the  Western  Forest. 


now  in  it  either  came  from  Europe,  or  are  the 
descendants  of  those  who  did.  So  you  see  we 
have  good  reason  to  feel  interested  in  Europe. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  Europe  interests  us  more  than  any  other 
Grand  Division,  because  we  have  more  trade  with 
it,  and  because  so  many  people  of  Europe  speak 
our  language.     How  many  ? 

2.  More  Americans  visit  Europe  than  visit  any 
other  Grand  Division,  and  more  Europeans  than 
any  other  people  settle  in  the  United  States. 

3.  The  most  important  reason  for  our  interest 
in  Europe  is  that  this  country  was  first  settled  by 
Europeans,  and  is  now  governed  by  their  descend- 
ants. 


II.  Coast  Line — Mountains — Glaciers. 
For  Reading: 

In  your  study  of  the  map  of  Europe  you  saw 
that  the  water  of  the  sea  cuts  into  the  land, 
making  numerous  bays  and  gulfs  and  leaving 
many  peninsulas,  thus  giving  greater  advantages 


COAST  LINE,   MOUNTAINS,    GLACIERS. 


105 


QUESTIONS    ON    THE    MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map.] 

Position,  Extent,  and  Form. — In  what  hemisphere 
is  Europe.!"  In  what  part  of  the  hemisphere?  In  what 
direction  from  the  United  States?  How  reached  from 
New  York?  From  San  Francisco?  In  sailing  from 
Hammerfest,  at  the  north  of  Norway,  to  Odessa  in  south- 
ern Russia,  on  what  oceans  and  through  what  straits  and 
seas  must  you  sail?  If  you  were  to  sail  so  as  to  touch  all 
seaport  towns  that  you  find  on  the  map,  on  what  waters 
would  you  sail?     What  Grand  Division  east  of  Europe? 

How  many  miles  on  this  map  does  an  inch  represent? 
Apply  your  ruler  and  tell  how  many  inches  it  is  from 
Cape  St.  Vincent  to  the  extreme  northeast  of  Russia. 
From  the  most  northerly  point  of  Norway  to  the  most 
southerly  point  of  Greece.  What,  then,  is  the  length  of 
Europe,  in  miles,  from  northeast  to  southwest?  FYom 
north  to  south? 

What  is  a  coast  line?  Is  the  coast  line  of  Europe 
smooth  or  irregular?  What  occupation  does  such  a 
coast  line  favor? 

Mountains. — What  is  a  mountain  system?  A  mount- 
ain chain?  In  Europe  do  the  mountain  systems  gen- 
erally run  east  and  west,  or  north  and  south?  In  what 
part  of  Europe  are  the  chief  mountain  systems?  Are  the 
ranges  longer  or  shorter  than  those  of  South  America? 
In  what  part  of  Europe  is  the  country  least  mountainous? 
*  Describe  the  position  of  the  Can  ta'bri  an  Mountains. 
The  Pyr'en  ees  Mountains.  The  Alps.  The  Appenines. 
The  Carpathian  Mountains.  The  Cau  cas'us  Mountains. 
The  Ural  Mountains.     The  Scandinavian  Mountains. 

Slopes  and  Rivers. — How  do  you  tell  on  the  map 
which  way  the  land  slopes?  How  many  general  land 
slopes  do  you  see  in  F ranee  f  In  what  direction  does  each 
He?    Name  the  rivers  that  drain  each  slope.     What  is 


the  general  direction  of  the  slope  in  Germany?  How  do 
you  tell?  What  are  the  principal  rivers  of  this  slope? 
In  what  general  direction  do  the  Austrian  plains  slope? 
Which  is  the  largest  river  of  these  plains?  What  three 
important  rivers  have  their  source  near  together  in  the 
Swiss  Alps?  In  what  direction  does  each  flow?  In  what 
general  direction  does  the  south  half  of  Russia  (rtish'e  a} 
slope?  The  north  half?  Name  the  largest  three  rivers. 
of  southern  Russia,  and  the  waters  that  receive  each  of 
them. 

Climate. — In  what  zones  does  Europe  lie?  How  do 
you  tell? 

Countries. — Bound  the  countries  of  Europe  and 
name  their  capitals. 

Thought  Questions. — Point  out  the  countries  that 
you  think  are  warm.  How  do  the  mountains  that  ex- 
tend east  and  west  across  Europe  affect  the  climate  of 
the  countries  that  lie  south  of  them?  Is  the  Mediter- 
ranean a  warm  or  a  cold  sea?  Why?  What  do  you  sec 
on  the  map  that  helps  you  to  tell  any  thing  of  the  climate  ?' 
Would  you  think  the  winter  climate  of  Great  Britain 
warmer  or  colder  than  that  of  Moscow?  Why?  The 
summer  climate?  Why?  In  what  climate  do  oats,, 
wheat,  corn,  and  other  food  grains  grow  best?  In  what 
part  of  Europe  would  you  expect  to  find  these?  In 
what  climate  grapes,  oranges,  olives,  figs,  and  lemons? 
In  what  part  of  Europe  would  you  expect  to  find  these?' 

Is  Europe  likely  to  have  many  or  few  good  harbors?' 
Why?  Many  or  few  important  seaports?  Why?  What 
are  likely  to  be  the  chief  occupations  of  people  in  sea- 
port towns?  ' 

Pronunciations.— Bal'(bawl)tic;  Belgrade';  Ber'lin;  B6rn;  BOs' 
porus;  Bu  cha(ko)rest' ;  Cat'tegat;  Chris  ti  a'ni(ne)a;  Dardanelles' 
(nelz);  Edinburgh  (ed'in  bur  ruh);  Loire  (Iwar);  Madrid';  R/4ine;. 
RAone;  Seine  (sane);  Sophia  (so  fe'a);  SkSg'er  Rack;  The  Hague 
(hag);  ViSn'na. 


lor  commerce  to  this  Grand  Division  than  to  any 
other. 

You  saw  that  the  chief  mountain  systems  run 
c;ast  and  west,  through  the  countries  nearest  the 
Mediterranean,  and  that  to  the  north  of  these  the 
country  is  mostly  a  vast  plain. 

You  saw,  also,  that  the  three  most  important 
rivers  of  Europe,  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  and  the 
Danube,  though  flowing  in  different  directions, 
liave  their  sources  near  together  in  the  Alps  of 
Switzerland;  indeed,  so  near  are  they  that  they 
can  all  be  seen  from  the  same  point. 


The  Alps,  though  not  the  highest  mountains  in. 
the  world,  are  the  most  celebrated.  They  attract 
more  visitors  than  all  others,  and  travelers  have 
written  many  thrilling  accounts  of  their  adven- 
tures among  the  lakes,  snows,  and  glaciers  (gla' 
seer)  of  these  mountains. 

The  glaciers^  are  vast  masses  of  ice  which  move 
slowly  along  between  the  facing  sides  of  mount- 
ains. They  are  sometimes  called  ice  rivers., 
although  they  never  move  more  than  240  feet  in  a 
year,  and  usually  much  slower.     As  the  glacier 

1  Reading  Hour:  World  at  Home,  vol.  V.,  p.  49,  Glaciers. 


io6 


EUROPE. 


passes  through  the  mountain  range  to  a  lower 
level  the  ice  melts  slowly  away,  and  forms  a  clear 
mountain  stream  bordered  with  green  grass  and 
flowers. 


A  Glacier. 

For  Recitation: 

II.  I.  The  water  of  the  sea  cuts  into  the  land 
of  Europe,  making  commerce  with  other  coun- 
tries easy. 

2.  The  chief  mountain  systems  of  Europe  run 
east  and  west,  through  the  southern  part.  North 
of  these  mountains  the  country  is  mostly  level. 

3.  The  Alps  are  the  most  celebrated  mountains 
in  the  world,  and  are  most  visited  by  travelers. 

4.  A  glacier  is  a  mass  of  slow-moving  ice 
formed  on  the  slopes  of  the  mountain  sides  that 
face  each  other.  As  it  moves  down  .to  a  warmer 
level,  it  melts  into  a  mountain  stream. 


III.  Great  Britain. 

For  Reading: 

The  wealthiest,  most  populous,  and  most  pow- 
erful nations  of  Europe  are  Great  Britain,  France, 
Germany,  Austria,  and  Russia.  These  nations 
are  so  strong  and  great  that  they  are  sometimes 
called  "The  Five  Great  Powers." 

The  kingdom  of  Great  Britain,  including  Ire- 
land, though  smaller  than  the  state  of  California, 


has  a  population  of  30,000,000  of  people, 
you  wonder  how  they  can  be  supported  ?     Thei 
land,  though  very  carefully  tilled,  does  not  yiel( 
enough  for  them  to  live  on  from  year  to  yeai 
Yet  Great  Britain  is  probably  the  richest  count: 
in  the  world.     How  can  this  be  ? 

Far  below  the  surface  are  vast  beds  of  coal, 
Near  by  them  are  also  rich  mines  of  iron.     Thi 
means  that  iron  for  steam  engines,  locomotiv( 
hardware,  and  all  the  machinery  needed  for 
sorts  of  factories,  is  easily  got  and  is  cheap.     It 
means  that  the  coal  to  melt  the  iron  ore  and  to 
feed  the  furnaces  of  thousands  of  factories   is 
cheap,  also. 

So  it  has  happened  that  the  British  people  are 
employed  in  mining  for  coal  and  iron  and  in 
manufacturing  the  iron  into  ships,  locomotives, 
and  rails  for  railroads,  machinery  for  factories, 
and  all  kinds  of  hardware,  to  sell. 

Then  they  use  part  of  their  machinery  for 
manufacturing  other  things  to  sell — woolen  cloth, 
cotton  cloth,  linen  goods,  cutlery,  hosiery,  and 
many  other  articles.  It  requires  a  great  number 
of  people  to  carry  on  this  work,  and  therefore 
large  towns  have  grown  up  all  over  the  kingdom. 
The  farming  country  between  these  towns  is  also 
very  thickly  settled. 

The  business  of  buying  these  manufactures 
and  shipping  and  selling  them  to  foreign  nations, 
and  taking  their  products  in  exchange,  furnishes 
occupation  to  many  thousands  of  people,  and 
builds  up  great  commercial  cities,  like  London — 
the  largest  city  in  the  world — lyiverpool,  and 
Glasgow.  The  British  are,  therefore,  the  great- 
est nation  of  manufacturers  and  traders  in  the 
world.  On  one  river  of  Scotland  40,000  men  are 
engaged  in  building  ships  to  enable  England  to 
carry  on  her  commerce.  Many  ships  are  also 
built  for  the  merchants  of  other  nations. 

Though  there  is  but  little  farming  country, 
much  attention  has  been  given   to  raising  fine 


1 


GREAT  BRITAIN,  FRANCE. 


107 


horses,  cattle,  and  sheep.  Some  of  the  finest 
breeds  of  these  animals  in  the  United  States  have 
been  brought  from  England. 


Shepherd  Scene  in  Scotland. 

The  English  nation  has  possessions  in  all  parts 
of  the  world.  It  has  been  said  that  "the  sun 
never  sets  on  British  soil."  Nearly  half  of  North 
America,  all  of  British  India,  and  the  whole  of 
Australia,  besides  many  smaller  possessions,  be- 
long to  Great  Britain. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  Name  The  Five  Great  Powers.  In  what 
three  things  do  they  surpass  other  nations  of 
Europe? 

2.  What  is  the  language  of  the  people  of  Great 
Britain?  Size  of  Great  Britain?  Population? 
Wealth? 

3.  What  of  iron?  Coal?  Why  are  they 
cheap? 

4.  What  industry  does  the  cheapness  of  iron 
and  coal  in  Great  Britain  foster?  Make  as  long 
a  list  as  you  can  of  articles  that  are  called  hard- 
ware. 

5.  What  is  cutlery?  Hosiery?  Why  are  there 
many  large  towns  in  Great  Britain  ? 

6.  What  business  makes  the  great  commercial 


cities  of  Great  Britain?  Name  three  of  these 
cities.  In  what  two  great  occupations  do  the 
British  surpass  all  other  nations  ? 

7.  Raising  of  live  stock — exported  to  what 
country  ? 

8.  What  is  the  government  of  Great  Britain? 
What  is  meant  by  the  sun's  never  setting  on 
British  soil?     Name  the  chief  British  possessions. 


IV.  France. 
For  Reading: 

Go  next  across  the  English  Channel  into  the 
republic  of  France.  {What  is  the  direction?') 
There  you  will  find  an  active,  intelligent,  polite, 
and  economical  people.  Such  a  people  is  always 
prosperous. 

Though  the  whole  country  is  only  about  one 
third  larger  than  the  state  of  California,  it  con- 
tains a  population  of  36,000,000  of  people,  and 
as  the  climate  is  favorable,  the  soil  fertile,  and  as 
many  of  the  inhabitants  are  engaged  in  cultivat- 
ing it,  enough  is  raised  to  support  them  all.  On 
their  small  farms,  generally  not  more  than  five 
acres  each,  the  French  raise  all  the  kinds  of  grain 
and  vegetables  that  we  do  in  this  country. 

In  addition  to  these,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
country  they  raise  large  crops  of  flax  and  sugar 
beets;  and  the  famous  Norman  work  horses  that 
we  see  in  this  country  come  from  the  north  of 
France. 

As  we  travel  farther  south  we  come  into  the 
region  of  vineyards,  and  find  on  the  hillsides 
men  and  women  and  children  cultivating  or 
gathering  the  grapes. 

Still  farther  south  the  mulberry  trees  appear 
and  the  silkworm^  is  reared,  and  here  the  fig  and 
the  olive  are  produced  in  large  quantities. 

France  is  also  rich  in  mines  as  well  as  in  soil, 

1  Reading  Hour:  California  Second  Reader,  p.  286,  Silk. 


io8 


EUROPE. 


especially  in  mines  of  lead.  Coal  and  iron  are 
found  in  the  eastern  and  central  parts  of  the  coun- 
try, but  in  much  less  quantities  than  in  England. 
Fine  quarries  of  marble  also  abound. 

Though  five  times  as  many  people  are  at  work 
on  the  farms  as  in  the  factories,  we  shall,  never- 
theless, find  many  thousands  of  the  most  skilled 
workmen  in  the  world  engaged  in  the  factories 
of  the  large  towns. 

These  factories  are  noted  for  fine  goods  of  all 
kinds — broadcloths,  flannels,  laces,  carpets,  iron 
and  brass  wares — but  we  should  especially  notice 
the  great  quantities  of  linen  goods  and  beet  sugar 
manufactured  in  the  north,  the  wines  and  brandies 
of  the  middle  section,  and  the  silks  in  the  south, 
at  Lyons  and  the  neighboring  towns. 

It  will  be  interesting,  also,  to  remember  that  the 
chinaware  most  famed  for  its  beauty  and  delicacy 
is  made  in  France  from  a  fine  clay  found  only 
there. 

The  French  have  done  much  to  encourage 
manufactures.  Among  other  things,  they  have 
established  in  many  cities,  but  chiefly  in  Paris, 
free  schools,  in  which  boys  and  girls  are  taught 
trades. 

In  the  many  large  towns  of  France  we  cannot 
fail  to  notice  the  signs  of  vast  trade.  A  country 
producing  so  much  from  its  soil  and  so  much 
from  its  factories  will  always  have  thousands  of 
people  engaged  in  commerce. 

To  make  commerce  easy  we  shall  find,  in 
France,  railroads  running  across  the  country  in 
every  direction,  and  canals  connecting  the  head- 
waters of  the  principal  rivers,  the  Seine,  the  Loire, 
the  Rhone,  and  the  Rhine.  By  this  means  you 
could,  if  you  wished,  enter  France  in  a  boat  by 
the  Seine  River,  at  Havre  (hav'r),  travel  all  about 
the  interior  of  the  country,  and  go  out  of  it  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  by  the  Rhone,  or  into  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  by  the  Loire,  or  into  the  North  Sea 
by  the  Rhine,  and  never  set  foot  on  land  from  the 


time  you  started.     Look  on  your  map,  and  see 
where  these  canals  must  be. 

Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  is  the  best  built, 
gayest,  and  most  attractive  city  in  the  world.  Its 
streets  are  kept  almost  as  clean  as  a  house  floor, 
and  its  public  gardens,  where  ever>'  one  is  free  to 
walk  or  ride,  abound  in  flowers  and  fountains. 


Animals  of  Europe. 
For  Reading  Only: 

The  Reindeer  is  the  most  useful  animal  known  to  the 
inhabitants  of  the  extreme  north  of  Europe.  It  pulls  a 
load  of  250  pounds  in  a  sledge  over  the  snow,  at  the  rate 
of  nine  or  ten  miles  an  hour.  The  female  furnishes  milk 
for  food.  The  number  of  reindeer  owned  by  a  Lap- 
lander determines  his  wealth;  if  a  thousand,  the  owner 
is  one  of  the  rich  men  of  the  country;  if  a  few  hundred, 
he  is  respectable;  if  only  forty  or  fifty,  he  is  poor  and  a 
servant.  The  food  of  the  reindeer  in  winter  is  a  coarse, 
moss-like  plant  called  lichen  (liken),  for  which  it  digs 

in  the  snow  with  its  hoofs  and  horns. The  Wolf  is 

an  animal  of  the  dog  kind,  a  cruel  and  cowardly  beast 
of  prey,  even  sometimes  attacking  and  devouring  one  of 
its  own  kind.  It  does  not  get  its  prey  by  springing  upon 
it,  like  the  panther  or  tiger,  but  by  running  it  down. 
When  trapped  it  displays  the  most  abject  cowardice.  A 
wolf  that  had  fallen  into  a  pit  dug  for  it  was  so  fright- 
ened that  it  made  no  attempt  to  injure  an  old  lady  who 
accidentally  fell  into  the  same  trap.     Several  species  of 

wolf  also  live  in  North  America. The  Brown  Bear, 

common  in  Russia  and  northern  Europe,  is,  like  his 
American  cousin,  the  Grizzly,  a  tough  fellow  to  meet. 
He  is  hard  to  kill,  even  with  bullets,  and  is  so  quick  and 
powerful  in  the  use  of  his  paws  that  a  hunter  once  within 
reach  has  little  chance  of  escape.  When  captured  young, 
however,  the  bear  becomes  much  attached  to  its  owner 
and  friends.  The  bear  often  continues  to  grow  till  it  is 
twenty  years  old,  reaching  a  weight  of  600  to  800  pounds. 

The  fur  of  the  Common  Fox  is  of  a  reddish  fawn 

color,  intermixed  with  black  and  white  hairs.  The  ani- 
mal is  about  one  foot  high  and  two  and  a  half  feet  long. 
It  gives  out  a  very  powerful  and  disagreeable  odor,  and  it 
seems  to  be  aware  that  the  dogs,  in  chasing  it,  are  guided 
by  this  odor,  for  it  resorts  to  many  cunning  tricks  to 
throw  them  off  the  scent.  So  ingenious  are  many  of 
these  devices  that  "as  cunning  as  a  fox"  is  a  common 
saying.  In  England  a  fox  chase  by  the  owners  of  the 
forests,  together  with  their  friends,  is  a  celebrated  sport. 


ANIMALS. 


109 


The  Musk  Deer  is  an  agile,  sure-footed  mountain  dweller.     It  is  chiefly  valuable  for  a 
perfume  which  it  carries,  called  musk,  and  which  is  so  powerful  that  a  small  piece  will 

a  room  with  its  odor  for  years. The  Hare  is  a  game  animal,  and  is  hunted  for  sport 

as  well  as  for  its  flesh,  which  is  prized  as  a  delicacy.     Its  average 
weight  is  about  eight  or  nine  pounds.     The  favorite  mode  of 
hunting  the   hare  is  with  a  band  of  horsemen  and  a  pack  of 
dogs,  the  swiftness  of  the  animal  making  the  sport  exciting. 
The  hare  feeds  on  grass,  vegetables,  and  tender  plants,  and 

is  often  very  troublesome  to  orchards  and  gardens. 

The   Chamois  (sham'my)   is  often  called  a  goat,  but  is 
in  reality  a  species  of  antelope.     Hardy  hunters  pursue 
it  among  the  cliffs  and  precipices  of  the  Alps,  but  only 
those  who  can  tramp  and  climb  for  days  in  the  ice 
and  rocks  and  snow  can  hope  to  come  within  even 
long  rifle  shot  of  the  little  leaper.     L,ike 
the   American  antelope,  the 
chamois  lives  and  travels    .^^  ',«    j^  ^^ 

in  herds. The   Ibex  '— ■ 

is  another  Alpine  ani- 
mal, but  of  the  goat 
family.       It     is 
fully    as    active 
and  wary  as  the 
chamois,  and 
addition,  will  some- 
times,      if       closely 
pressed,  turn  upon  the 
hunter  and  strike  him 
from  the  rock  or  cliff 
on  which   he    stands. 
The    ibex 
lives   in 
bands 


sack  of 
fill 


of  five  or  ten   individuals. The  Cretan  Sheep   is  a 

S])lendid  animal  of  southern  Europe  and  western  Asia. 
It  is  covered  by  a  soft,  woolly  undercoat,  protected  by 
long,  drooping  hairs.     The  wool  is  extremely  fine  in 


quality,  and  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  warm 
cloaks,  almost  impenetrable  by  the  cold. 

Reading  Hour:  Wood's  Mammalia,  p.  690,  the  Reindeer;  p.  325, 
The  Wolf;  p.  391,  The  Brown  Bear;  p.  332,  The  Fox;  p.  703,  The  Musk 
Deer;  p.  581,  The  Hare;  p.  650,  The  Chamois;  p.  668,  The  Ibex. 


no 


EUROPE. 


For  Recitation: 

IV.  I.  What  is  the  government  of  France? 
What  is  the  character  of  the  people  of  France? 

2.  Size;  population;  climate;  soil;  variety  of 
product. 


BH|B|ll|ULn^s|^^^BF^^ 

M 

55^^^^^^^'T^''^  ^"^f 

^ 

Public  Garden  near  Paris. 


3.  Copy  and   fill  out   this   diagram  with  the 
products  of  France: 


Northern  Section , 


Middle  Section 


Southern  Section 


4.  Name  the  minerals  of  France.  What  of 
coal  and  iron? 

5.  Compare  the  number  of  people  on  farms 
with  the  number  in  factories. 

6.  For  what  are  the  factories  generally  noted  ? 
Make  a  diagram  like  the  above  for  the  manufact- 
ures of  Southern,  Middle,  and  Northern  Sections 
of  France.  Why  do  we  not  find  the  manufacture 
of  wines  and  brandies  in  the  Northern  Division  ? 
Why  not  of  linens  in  the  south  of  France  ? 

7.  Chinaware. 

8.  How  are  manufactures  encouraged? 

9.  What  makes  France  a  commercial  country? 


10.  Tell  how  commerce  is  made  easy  in  France. 
If  you  enter  France  by  the  Seine  River,  and  go 
out  by  the  Loire,  what  water  do  you  leave  when 
you  enter,  and  into  what  water  do  you  go  when 
you  leave?  If  you  go  out  by  the  Rhone,  into 
what  water  do  you  go ?     If  by  the  Rhine? 

11.  What  of  Paris? 


V.  Germany. 
For  Reading: 

Directly  east  of  ' '  Sunny  France  "  lies  the  most 
powerful  country  of  Central  Europe — the  Empire 
of  Germany.  If  we  enter  it  upon  its  southern 
side,  from  France,  we  shall  find  ourselves  upon 
its  highest  mountains.  Turning  our  steps  north- 
ward, we  shall  come  upon  lower  mountain  ranges, 
and  then  upon  lower  ones  still,  till  we  come  down 
upon  the  broad  plains  sloping  to  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Baltic  Sea. 

As  we  go  northward  the  climate  changes  also. 
In  the  mountains  the  valleys  are  warm  and  the 
winters  short,  while  on  the  northern  plains  the 
cold  in  winter  is  so  intense  that  for  several  months 
in  the  year  the  rivers  are  covered  with  ice  so  thick 
as  to  bear  loaded  wagons.  The  climate  is  health- 
ful, however,  and  the  Germans  are  a  strong,  hardy 
race  of  industrious  people. 

Their  country"  is  a  little  larger  than  France, 
and  they  have  about  6,000,000  more  people. 
Their  soil  is  less  fertile,  and  their  climate  less 
favorable  for  field  culture.  Nevertheless,  by 
their  great  industry  and  by  good  methods  of 
working  their  land,  they  raise  enough  of  the 
grains,  vegetables,  and  fruits  common  in  the  Tem- 
perate Zone  to  supply  nearly  all  their  food,  though 
most  of  the  laboring  people  live  very  poorly. 
Sugar  beets  are  more  extensively  raised,  and  beet 
sugar  more  largely  manufactured,  than  in  any 
other  country.      Horses,  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep 


GERMANY,   AUSTRO-HUNGARY,   RUSSIA. 


are  raised  in  immense  numbers ;  and  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine,'  the  most  beautiful  valley  of  Europe, 
is  famous  for  its  vineyards  and  its  wines. 

Next  to  England,  Germany,  in  mines  and  man- 
ufactures, is  the  richest  country  in  Europe.  It 
has  a  large  trade  with  foreign  nations,  mostly 
with  England.  Besides  the  great  variety  of  its 
other  products,  it  has,  like  California,  large 
■quantities  of  wine  and  hops  to  sell  to  other  coun- 
tries. 

The  people'  of  Germany  are  especially  distin- 
guished for  two  things — their  great  army,  and 
their  common  schools.  More  attention  is  given 
to  education  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 

Berlin,  the  capital  of  Germany,  is  the  third  city 
of  Europe  in  population.  It  is  a  handsome  city, 
and  is  distinguished  for  its  schools,  its  public 
libraries  and  museums,  and  its  manufactures. 


For  Recitation: 

V.  I .  The  surface  of  Germany  is  mountainous 
in  the  south  and  level  in  the  north. 

2.  The  valleys  in  the  mountains  have  warm 
summers  and  short  winters.  The  winters  on  the 
northern  plain  are  cold  and  long.  The  climate 
is  healthful. 

3.  Germany  is  a  little  larger  than  France,  but 
is  less  fertile.  Nearly  enough  is  raised  in  Ger- 
many for  the  food  of  the  people.  What  of  live 
stock?     The  valley  of  the  Rhine? 

4.  In  mines  and  manufactures  how  does  Ger- 
many compare  with  other  countries?  In  what 
does  it  resemble  California  ? 

5.  For  what  are  the  Germans  especially  distin- 
guished ? 

1  Reading  Hour:  Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  89,  IvOuise,  the  Child  of  the 
Beautiful  Rhine. 

Our  World  Reader,  p.86,  The  Rhine. 

2  Reading  Hour:  Life  Among  the  Germans,  p.  21,  Birthdays;  pp. 
194-195,  A  School  Kxaniination;  p.  199.  How  Girls  Study  Sewing;  pp. 
"♦-55>  A.  German  Kitchen;  p.  139,  A  New  Year's  Party. 


6.  Write  six  facts  about  Berlin,  and  number 
them. 


VI.    AUSTRO-HUNGARY. 

For  Reading: 

Starting  from  southern  Germany  and  going 
eastward  we  pass  into  another  of  The  Five  Great 
Powers — the  empire  of  Austro-Hungary.  This 
is  the  most  mountainous  country  of  Europe,  ex- 
cept Switzerland. 

We  shall  find  Austria  covered  with  heavy  for- 
ests, and  fields  of  such  grain  as  is  usually  found 
in  the  Temperate  Zone. 

Like  most  mountainous  countries,  she  is  rich 
in  mines,  especially  in  salt'  mines.  The  largest 
of  these,  near  Cracow,  consists  of  four  under- 
ground floors,  one  below  another,  each  nearly  two 
miles  long  and  more  than  half  a  mile  wide.  On 
these  floors  are  numerous  lofty  aisles  and  galleries, 
hewn  out  of  rock  salt.  One  of  the  chambers  in 
this  mine  is  fitted  up  as  a  chapel,  with  pulpit, 
altars,  columns,  and  statues,  of  salt.  The  mine 
has  been  worked  for  more  than  700  years. 

As  in  most  old  and  wealthy  countries,  the 
people  are  busy,  also,  with  manufactures,  and 
the  cities  contain  many  very  elegant  buildings, 
both  public  and  private,  as  well  as  interesting 
ancient  castles,  cathedrals,  and  universities. 

Vienna,  the  capital,  is  the  fourth  city  of  Europe 


VII.  Russia. 
For  Reading: 

Russia,  the  largest  of  The  Five  Great  Powers, 
comprises  half  of  Europe  and  a  large  part  of  Asia, 
and  six  Russias  would  cover  all  the  land  in  the 
world. 

It  is  mostly  lowland  plain.     The  pine  forests 

1  Reading  Hour:  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,  p.  92,  The  Story 
of  Salt. 


EUROPE. 


of  the  nortli  contain  many  wild  animals,  and  the 
people  there  are  chiefly  engaged  in  cutting  wood 
and  producing  tar,  pitch,  and  potash. 

In  the  south  rich  lands  yield,  beside  other  crops 
of  the  Temperate  Zone,  vast  quantities  of  wheat, 
most  of  which  is  exported  through  the  port  of 
Odessa,  on  the  Black  Sea.  In  the  export  of  wheat 
Russia  ranks  next  to  the  United  States. 


A  Russian  Coachman. 

The  Russians  are  large  in  stature.  In  character 
they  are  strong  and  rather  fierce.  The  govern- 
ment is  a  despotism.  The  chief  ruler  is  called  a 
Czar.  His  winter  palace  in  St.  Petersburg^  will 
accommodate  6,000  people.  The  poorer  classes 
are  much  degraded. 


For  Recitation: 

VI.  I .  Austria  is  the  most  mountainous  coun- 
try of  Europe,  except  Switzerland. 

2.  Heavy  forests  and  large  fields  of  grain  cover 
much  of  the  country. 

3.  Tell  what  is  said  of  the  mines. 

4.  With  what  shall  we  find  the  Austrians  busy? 
What  sort  of  countries  are  usually  busy  in  this 

1  Reading  Hour:    Ttu  World;  its  Chief  Cities  and  People,  p.  226, 
Russia. 


way?     What  of  Austrian  cities?     What  should 
you  think  the  exports  are  ?     Why  ? 

VII.  I.  In  what  Grand  Divisions  is  Russia?" 
Compare  it  in  size  with  Europe.  With  the  land 
of  the  earth. 

2.  Surface.  Occupations  and  products  of  the; 
north.     [Find  in  the  dictionary  what  potash  is.'\ 

3.  Soil  in  the  south.  Principal  product.  Wheat 
in  Russia  and  the  United  States. 

4.  Size  and  character  of  the  Russian  people. 
Chief  ruler. 


VIII.  Sweden  and  Norway — Denmark — 
Holland — Belgium. 

For  Reading: 

Lying  to  the  north  of  The  Five  Great  Powers 
are  the  kingdoms  of  Sweden  and  Norway, 
Denmark,  Holland,  and  Belgium. 

The  people  of  Norway  live  chiefly  by  the  prod- 
ucts of  their  forests,  fisheries,^  and  mines.  The 
country  is  too  cold  and  barren  to  produce  large 
crops.  Sweden  has  more  land  fit  for  cultivation 
than  Norway,  and  raises  grain  and  potatoes  for 
export.  Swedish  iron  and  steel  are  the  finest  iai 
the  world,  and  are  exported  to  other  countries^] 
Both  countries  are  under  one  king. 

The  people  of   Denmark,   called   Danes,   live 
chiefly  by  hunting  and  fishing. 

A  large  part  of  Holland^  was  once  under  the^ 
sea.  Great  walls  of  earth,  called  dikes,  which 
have  been  built  along  the  seashore,  now  keep  the 
ocean  from  overflowing  the  land.  Holland  is 
famous  for  its  beautiful  meadows,  its  cows,  butter 
and  cheese,  and  its  fine  breeds  of  cattle.  The 
Holstein  cows,  of  which  there  are  many  in  Cali- 
fornia, were  first  brought  to  this  country  frora^ 
Holland. 

1  World  at  Home,  vol.  V.,  p.  13,  Curious  Things  about  Fisheries. 

2  Reading  Hour:  Holland,  by  de  Amicis. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF   THE  FIVE  GREAT  POWERS. 


"3 


Belgium  is  a  little  country  full  of  busy  people. 
It  is  so  thickly  settled  as  to  be  almost  one  great 
city.      It  is  especially  famous  for  its  carpets  and 


Norwegian  Farm  Houses. 


laces.  There  are  in  Belgium  900  schools  to  teach 
the  art  of  lace  making,  and  some  of  the  finest 
laces  of  Brussels  sell  for  $350  a  yard. 


For  Recitation: 

VIII.  I.  Name  the  countries  lying  north  of  The 
Five  Great  Powers.  What  is  their  form  of  gov- 
ernment ? 

2.  How  do  the  people  of  Norway  live?  Ex- 
ports of  Sweden.  Both  countries  are  under  one 
king. 

3.  Who  are  the  Danes,  and  how  do  they  live? 

4.  What  is  a  dike?  How  is  Holland  saved 
jrom  the  sea  ?  For  what  famous  ?  Describe  any 
Holstein  cattle  3''OU  have  seen. 

5.  Belgium  is  the  most  thickly  settled  country 
of  Europe,  and  is  famous  for  carpets  and  laces. 


IX.  Countries  South  of  the  Great  Powers. 
For  Reading: 

The  remaining  countries  of   Europe,   except 
Switzerland,  are  found  in  the  three  peninsulas 


that  project  southward  from  The  Five  Great 
Powers. 

Spain^  and  Portugal,  two  kingdoms  of  the 
western  peninsula,  were  once  powerful  nations, 
with  large  possessions.  They  are  now  feeble 
governments,  and  their  people  are  not  pros- 
perous. They  produce  for  export,  wool,  silk, 
olives,  oranges,  figs,  and  wine.  Cork  is  obtained 
in  the  southern  part  of  Spain  from  the  bark  of  a 
kind  of  oak.  There  are  still  in  Spain  some  relics 
of  its  old  grandeur.  The  capital,  Madrid,  is  said 
to  contain  the  finest  picture  gallery  in  the  world. 

Italy,  which  occupies  the  central  peninsula  of 
southern  Europe,  was  once  a  powerful  empire. 
Here  the  ancient  Romans  lived.  Americans  now 
visit  Italy  mainly  for  the  sake  of  what  is  to  be 
seen  in  its  famous  old  cities.  Rome  is  interesting 
as  the  seat  of  the  ancient  empire  of  the  Roman 
people  and  the  home  of  the  Pope,  the  head  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  church  throughout  the  world. 
Venice  is  built  on  islands,  and  has  canals  for 
streets.  Florence  is  the  most  celebrated  city  for 
its  works  of  ancient  art,  and  Genoa  was  the  birth- 
place of  Columbus.  The  industries  of  Italy  are 
not  important.  The  products  consist  chiefly  of 
olive  oil,  rice,  wheat,  silk,  and  macaroni. 


Making  Macaroni. 


The  empire  of  Turkey  occupies,  with  Greece, 

I  Reading  Hour:  Spain,  by  de  Amicis,  p.  231,  Toledo. 


114 


EUROPE. 


the  eastern  peninsula  of  southern  Europe.  The 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Turks  more  resemble 
those  of  Asiatic  countries  than  those  of  European 
nations,  and  a  large  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire 
lies  in  Asia.  The  people  are  mostly  poor  and 
miserable,  and  g]»eatly  oppressed  by  their  govern- 
ment. The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  products  are 
the  same  as  those  found  in  the  other  peninsulas 
of  southern  Europe.  The  chief  ruler  is  called  a 
Sultan. 

Constantinople,^  the  capital,  looks  from  a  dis- 
tance very  bright  and  gay  with  its  religious  tem- 
ples, slender,  shining  spires,  and  large  cypress 
trees,  but  its  streets  are  merely  crooked,  narrow, 
dirty,  unlighted  lanes,  and  its  houses  are  low  and 
small.     Dogs  are  regarded  as  almost  sacred. 

Roumania,  Servia,  Bulgaria,  and  Monte- 
negro were  until  recently  under  the  rule  of  the 
Turks.     They  are  now  independent. 

Greece,  though  never  having  large  possessions, 
was,  in  ancient  times,  the  most  celebrated  country 
in  the  world  for  the  braver^',  learning,  and  oratory 
of  its  people.  The  temples  and  public  buildings 
of  the  old  Greeks  have  ever  since  their  time  been 
the  models  used  by  civilized  nations  in  building. 
This  country,  once  so  famous,  is  now  unimpor- 
tant. Athens,  the  capital,  is  now  noted  only  for 
its  ruins. 

Between  the  southern  peninsulas  and  The  Five 
Great  Powers  we  find  Switzerland.  This  is  a 
romantic  little  country  situated  among  the  highest 
mountains^  of  Europe.  It  has  been  for  many 
hundred  years  the  home  of  a  brave,  hard  working 
people,  who  have  held  their  mountain  homes 
against  the  strongest  nations  that  have  sought  to 
invade  them.  It  is  too  broken  in  surface  to  be  a 
rich  country,  but  in  its  valleys  are  fine  pastures 
where  many  cattle  are  raised,  making  butter  and 
cheese  the  chief  products  of  -the  farm.  Switzer- 
land is  also  famous  for  its  manufacture  of  watches 

1  Reading  Hour:     Constantinople,  by  de  Amicis,  p.  io8,  Dogs. 
iOur  World  Reader,  p.  70,  The  Alps  and  their  People. 


and  toys,  the  latter  employing  the  peasants  during 
the  long  winter  evenings.  The  government  is. 
republican. 

For  Recitation: 

IX.  I.  Name  all  the  countries  of  Europe  south.] 
of  The  Five  Great  Powers.  In  what  natural^ 
divisions  are  most  of  them?     What  exception? 

2.  Spain  and  Portugal — kind  of  government;! 
situation;  former  condition;  present  condition;; 
exports;  cork. 

3.  Where  is  Italy  situated?  Write  in  one  col- 
umn a  list  of  its  famous  cities,  and  opposite  each] 
write  for  what  it  is  famous.     Products  of  Italy. 

4.  What  six  countries  make  the  southeastern.] 
peninsula  of  Europe?  Character  and  condition.] 
of  the  Turks.     Chief  ruler. 

5.  For  what  was  ancient  Greece  famous?  What! 
of  its  present  condition? 

6.  Switzerland — situation;  character  of  people; 
chief  farm  products;  winter  employment. 

Write  the  names  of  all  the  countries  of  EuropCy  j 
and  the  names  by  which  their  people  are  called^\ 
thus: 

England Englishmen. 

Spain Spaniards. 


TopicAiv  Review  of  Europe. 

Write,  in  your  own  language,  all  of  the  geog 
raphy  of  Europe  that  you  know,   using,   as 
guide ,  the  following  topics : 

Position.  Products: 

TA    -       .  (Mineral,  vegetable,   ani- 

mal.) 
Mountain  Systems.  ^ 

Occupations: 

Drainage:  (Farming,  manufacturing^ 

(Slopes  and  rivers.)  mining,  commerce.). 

Climate.  Countries. 

-  Cities  and  Towns: 

^    '  (Location,  for  what  note 

Animals.  etc) 


NATURAL  FEATURES. 


115 


ASIA. 


[Before  taking  the  lessons,  "  For  Reading,"  let  the  map  on  the  next  page  be  carefully  studied.] 


I.  SizK — Surface — Climate — People. 
For  Reading: 

We  now  come  to  the  largest  of  the  Grand  Di- 
visions, that  of  Asia.  It  is  about  twice  as  large 
as  North  America,  and  four  times  as  large  as 
Europe.  There  are  many  reasons  why  we  should 
be  curious  to  know  something  of  Asia.  In  the 
first  place,  it  is  supposed  that  the  human  race  had 
its  beginning  there.  Every  great  religion  in  the 
world,  also,  began  in  Asia.  Another  interesting 
fact  is  that  the  domestic  animals — the  horse,  the 
cow,  the  sheep,  the  goat,  the  hog,  and  the  "barn- 
yard fowls" — were  first  known  in  Asia. 

In  surface  and  climate  Asia  is  divided  into  three 
belts,  extending  east  and  west  across  the  Grand 
Division. 

The  most  northerly  of  these  belts  consists  of 
the  vast  plain  that  slopes  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
and  possesses,  through  nearly  its  whole  extent, 
a  climate  of  excessive  cold. 

The  central  belt  consists,  for  the  most  part,  of 
the  great  plateau  region  upon  which  the  lofty 
mountains  of  Asia  stand,  and  its  climate  is  marked 
by  cold  winters  and  hot,  dry  summers.  From  the 
plateaus  of  this  region  rise  mountains  with  peaks 
higher  than  any  bird  can  fly — the  highest  mount- 
ains of  the  world.  Mt.  Everest,  a  peak  of  the 
Himalaya,  is  five  and  a  half  miles  high. 

The  southern  belt,  which  lies  south  of  the  great 
central  mountain  system,  embraces  the  peninsulas 
of  southern  Asia,  and  is  mostly  a  level  country, 
with  a  hot  and  moist  climate. 

Asia  contains  more  than  half  of  all  the  people 
of  the  globe,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  this  popu- 
lation is  crowded  into  the  southeastern  part. 
Here,  in  the  countries  of  British  India,   Indo- 


China,  Japan,  and  the  eastern  half  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  are  nearly  800,000,000  of  people.  In 
the  east  the  inhabitants  are  mostly  of  the  Mon- 
golian race;  in  the  west  they  are  of  the  Caucasian. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I .  Comparative  size  of  Asia. 

2.  Three  things  that  make  Asia  of  interest  to 
us. 

3.  How  is  Asia  divided  in  surface  and  climate? 

4.  Surface  and  climate  of  northern  belt. 

5.  Of  central  belt. 

6.  Of  southern  belt.  Of  what  natural  divisions 
does  southern  Asia  consist?  Compare  it  with 
Europe  in  this  respect. 

7.  Population  of  Asia. 

8.  Races  of  Asia  and  their  locality. 


II.  Siberia  and  the  Chinese  Empire. 
For  Reading: 

Siberia,  the  most  northerly  country  of  Asia,  is 
a  Russian  possession.  It  is  larger  than  the  whole 
of  Europe  or  the  United  States.  The  northern 
part  consists  of  a  mossy  plain,  frozen  solid  the 
greater  part  of  the  year,  and  even  in  the  short 
summer  thawing  out  only  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface.  Here  the  reindeer,  white  bear,  and  black 
fox  are  found. 

South  of  this  plain  is  a  belt  of  heavy  forest, 
with  narrow,  fertile  strips  along  the  rivers.  Sable, 
beaver,  ermine,  marten,  and  other  fur-bearing  ani- 
mals abound,  and  people  live  mostly  by  hunting, 
trapping,  and  fishing. 

Still    further  south   lie   grassy  plains,   called 


SIBERIA   AND   CHINESE  EMPIRE. 


117 


QUESTIONS     ON    THE    MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map.] 

1.  Position,  Extent,  and  Form. — In  what  hemi- 
sphere is  Asia?  How  would  you  reach  it  from  San 
Francisco?  What  oceans  wash  its  northern,  eastern, 
and  southern  shores,  and  what  Grand  Division  consti- 
tutes its  western  boundary?  Passing  along  the  coast  of 
Asia  from  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  to  Bering  Strait^  name 
the  gulfs ^  seas,  straits,  and  bays  that  border  it. 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map  of  Asia?  Is  it  drawn  on 
a  larger  or  smaller  scale  than  the  map  of  Europe,  p.  104? 
Asia  is  longest  from  southwest  to  northeast;  measure  the 
map  and  find  the  length  of  Asia  from  the  Strait  of  Babel- 
mandeb  to  Bering  Strait.  Measure  from  North  East 
Cape  to  Cape  Roumania  and  find  the  width  from  north 
to  south.     Compare  these  extents  with  those  of  Europe. 

Name  the  five  peninsulas  partly  surrounded  by  the 
waters  that  wash  the  shores  of  Asia,  Is  the  coast  line 
of  Asia  smooth  or  irregular?  Is  it  more  or  less  so  than 
that  of  Europe? 

Write  all  the  information  you  have  gained 
from  a  study  of  the  preceding  questions. 

2.  Mountains. — What  is  a  mountain  system?  What 
is  the  general  direction  of  the  Hindoo  Koosh,  Himalaya 
(him  a'la  ya),  Thian  Shan  (te  an'  shan),  and  Altai  (al'ti) 
Ranges — east  and  west,  or  north  and  south?  In  what 
part  of  Asia  are  they? 

3.  Sl^OPES  AND  Rivers. — What  is  a  slope?     How  is 


l| 

sie 


steppes,  inhabited  by  roving  bands  of  Tartars, 
with  their  flocks  and  herds.  Some  fertile  val- 
leys, in  the  southern  part,  produce  the  usual 
crops  of  the  Temperate  Zones.  In  the  mountain 
regions  of  the  east  and  south  there  are  rich  mines 
of  gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals.  These  give 
to  Siberia  its  chief  value.  They  are  owned  by 
the  Russian  Government,  and  are  worked  chiefly 
by  exiles  condemned  to  this  service.  Nearly  all 
the  inhabitants  of  Siberia  are  exiles  from  Russia, 
or  their  descendants. 

In  the  Chinese  Empire^  nearly  the  entire  pop- 
ulation lies  south  and  east  of  the  great  wall  that 
you  see  on  the  map.      This  is  the  most  fertile 


the  direction  of  a  slope  told  on  a  map?  Study  the  map 
and  tell  how  many  great  ocean  slopes  Asia  has.  What 
is  the  direction  of  each  slope?  In  what  part  of  Siberia 
is  the  land  highest? 

What  is  a  river  system?  Which  is  the  principal  river 
of  any  river  system?  What  is  a  river  basin?  What  are 
the  three  principal  river  systems  of  the  Arctic,  or  Sibe- 
rian Slope?  Of  the  Pacific,  or  China  Slope?  Four  of  the 
Indian  Slope?  Describe  the  principal  river  of  each  sys- 
tem. 

Write  a  short  composition  to  tell  what  you  have 
learned  from  answers  to  questions  under  ''Slopes 
and  Rivers."     Omit  the  last  question. 

4.  CwMATE. — In  how  many  zones  does  Asia  lie?  In 
which  zone  is  the  greater  part  of  Asia?  How  do  you 
tell?  Which  of  the  great  slopes  of  Asia  do  you  think  are 
warm,  and  which  cold?  What  climate  should  you  expect 
to  find  in  the  high  mountain  regions  of  the  central  part? 

5.  ISI.ANDS. — What  country  of  Asia  consists  of  islands? 
In  what  direction  is  it  from  the  mainland?  What  group 
of  islands  southeast  of  Asia?  What  large  island  south- 
east of  Indo-China?  What  island  south  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula? 

Bound  Siberia,  China,  India,  Arabia,  Per'sia  {she  a'), 
Afghan  is  tan',  Bel  00  chis  tan'.  Locate  the  following 
cities:  Tobolsk',  Yo  ko  hd'ma,  To'ki  b,  Pekin,  Canton, 
Shang'hai  (hi),  Calcutta,  Mecca,  Muscat,  Damascus. 
Which  of  these  are  capitals?     Of  what  countries? 

Pronunciations.— A  moor';  Brah  ma  poo'tra;  Cam  bo'  di  a;  Co- 
re'a;  GSn'ges;  Ho  ang  ho';  Kam  chat'ka;  O'bii;  O  k/45tsk':  Per' 
si  an;  PhU'ip  pine;  Suez';  T5n  quin'  (keen);  Yang  tse  ki  ang'; 
Yen  e  se'i  (sa'e). 


II 


Reading  Hour:  Our  World  Reader,  p.  138,  About  China. 


part  of  the  empire.  Although  less  than  half  as 
large  as  the  United  States,  it  contains  about  one 
fourth  of  the  entire  population  of  the  globe. 
The  wall,  which  separates  it  from  the  rest  of  the 
empire,  was  built  by  the  Chinese  2,000  years  ago, 
to  keep  out  their  old  enemies,  the  Tartars.  It  is 
twenty-five  feet  high,  and  so  wide  that  six  horse- 
men can  ride  abreast  on  it.  Over  mountains,  into 
deep  valleys,  across  rivers  and  every  obstacle,  this 
wall  extends  for  more  than  1,200  miles. 

The  Chinese^  are  a  well  educated  and  indus- 
trious people,  but  not  inventive  in  machinery. 
Nearly  all  their  beautiful  wares  are  made  by  hand. 

1  Reading  Hour:    Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  59,  The  Story  of  Pense; 
When  I  was  a  Boy  in  China,  p.  26,  China  Cookery;  p.  50,  China  Schools. 


Ii8 


ASIA. 


More  than  2,000  years  ago  they  knew  the  art  of 
printing,  of  making  silks,  gunpowder,  and  paper, 
and   had   invented  the  mariner's   compass   and 


A  Chinese  Village. 

clocks.  The  manufacture  of  silk,  linen,  porcelain, 
and  a  multitude  of  fancy  articles,  is  extensive, 
but  the  Chinese  are  mainly  engaged  in  farming, 
producing,  chiefly,  tea,^  rice,'^  cotton,  and  silk- 
worms. Next  to  rice  and  silk,  the  bamboos  of 
China  bring  the  largest  revenue  to  the  country. 
Farming  is  held  in  high  reverence.  Once  a  year 
the  Emperor  and  the  nobles  plow  a  furrow,  as  an 
example  to  the  workmen.  The  Empress  raises 
silkworms  and  spins  the  silk,  that  other  women 
may  not  be  too  proud  to  labor.     The  country  is  so 

1  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,  p.  45,  The  Story  of  the  Tea. 

2  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,  p.  117,  The  Story  of  the  Rice. 


crowded  with  people  that  the  hillsides  are  terraced 
and  the  rocks  covered  with  earth  to  gain  ground 
for  cultivation,  and  the  bottoms  of  the  rivers  are 
planted  with  roots  for  food,  while  millions  of 
people  live  on  rafts  on  the  rivers.  The  Chinese 
are  great  traders.  The  rivers  and  numberless 
canals  are  crowded  with  vessels  of  all  sizes,  en- 
gaged in  carrying  articles  of  traffic  from  one 
province  to  another.  The  chief  foreign  trade  of 
China  is  with  Great  Britain.  The  trade  with  the 
United  States  is  next  in  importance.  China  has 
also  a  large  trade  with  Russia,  which  is  conducted 
by  great  caravans  passing  over  the  mountains 
into  Siberia  and  on  through  to  Russia  in  Europe. 
Shanghai  and  Canton  are  the  chief  commercial 
cities.  Pekin,  the  capital,  is  the  largest  city,  and 
the  one  of  which  the  Chinese  are  most  proud. 


For  Recitation: 

II.  Describe  Siberia  by  copying  the  following 
outline  and  filling  it  out  as  the  first  two  items 
are  filled: 

1.  Government. — Governed  by  Russia. 

2.  Comparative  Size. — It  is  larger  than  the 
whole  of  Europe  or  the  United  States. 

3.  Northern  Belt.  5.  Southern  Belt. 

1.  Surface. —      ...  i.  Surface. —      .     .     . 

2.  Climate. —     ...  2.  Tartars. —      .     .     . 

3.  Animals. —    ...  3.  Crops. —    .... 

4.  Middle  Belt.  6.  Mines. 

1.  Kind  of  country. —  i.  What. —    .... 

2.  Animals. —    ...  2.  Where. —  .... 

3.  Occupation. —    .     .  3.  How  worked. — 

7.  In  what  part  of  China  is  most  of  the  popu- 
lation?    Extent  of  population. 

8.  Describe  the  Chinese  wall. 

9.  Character  of  the  Chinese.  Manufactures. 
Chief  occupations.     Trade.     Chief  cities. 


JAPAN  AND  INDIA. 


119 


III.  Japan  and  India. 

For  Reading: 

As  we  sail  from  San  Francisco  to  Asia  we  shall 
land  first  in  the  Island  Empire  of  Japan,  in  the 
harbor  of  Yokohama.  Ships  of  all  nations,  gay 
with  flags,  will  greet  us  here,  for  the  Japanese, 
unlike  the  Chinese,  welcome  the  foreigner.  The 
Japanese  are  also  much  more  enterprising,  and 
have  introduced  railroads,  telegraphs,  and  many- 
other  foreign  inventions.  The  productions  of  the 
soil  are  about  the  same  as  those  of  China,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  manufactures.  In  the 
populous  parts  not  a  foot  of  land  is  allowed  to  go 
to  waste.  In  the  wooded  sections  camphor,  pine, 
cypress,  live  oak,  cedar,  maple,  bamboo,  and  yew 
trees  abound.  The  bamboo  is  used  in  every  art, 
and  is  the  most  important  tree  in  the  country. 

The  traveler  in  Japan  has  many  interesting 
things  to  tell  of  his  observations  among  the 
people.  Everywhere  he  goes  along  the  streets  of 
the  cities,  he  finds  the  doors  of  the  houses  open 
and  the  amusements  and  employments  of  the 
family  going  on  in  full  view.  The  Japanese^ 
make  much  of  their  homes,  and  fill  their  leisure 
liours  with  games.  If  the  traveler  stops  to  enjoy 
the  scene  the  host  steps  to  the  door  and  politely 
invites  him  in  and  makes  him  welcome.  Educa- 
tion receives  much  attention  in  Japan,  even  more 
than  in  China,  the  methods  of  American  schools 
having  been  introduced  within  the  last  few  years. 

British  India  is  about  half  the  size  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  under  the  government  of 
Oreat  Britain.  Its  population  is  nearly  equal  to 
that  of  all  Europe.  The  native  inhabitants, 
though  of  dark  complexion,  belong  to  the  Cau- 
casian race. 

India  is  the  home  of  the  fiercest  animals  and 
reptiles  known.  The  tiger,  lion,  leopard,  and 
crocodile  are  found  in  great  numbers.     The  tiger 

1  Reading  Hour:  Young  Americans  in  Japan,  p.  98. 


hunt  is  a  famous  sport,  and  is  conducted  on  the 
backs  of  elephants,  which  are  also  natives  of 
India. 

The  productions  of  the  country  are,  chiefly,  rice, 
cotton,  opium,  indigo,  and  sugar.  Rice  is  the 
chief  article  of  food.  India  is  also  rich  in  min- 
erals and  precious  stones.  The  wonderful  banyan 
tree  is  found  here.  The  branches  of  this  tree 
bend  over  to  the  ground  and  take  root,  and  in 
time  a  grove  of  considerable  size  is  formed  from  a 
single  tree. 

The  leading  manufactures  are  silk,  articles  of 
ivory,  and  the  famous  cashmere  shawls.  These 
shawls  are  made  from  the  hair  of  the  cashmere 
goat,  and  are  the  most  beautiful  and  durable 
shawls  in  the  world.  They  are  also  the  costliest, 
three  or  four  men  sometimes  spending  a  whole 
year  in  weaving  a  pair  of  them. 

Many  odd  and  amusing  manners  and  customs 
prevail  among  the  people,  but  the  most  remark- 
able feature  of  Hindoo  society  is  the  division 
of  the  people  into  four  castes  or  classes — Brah'- 
mins  or  priests,  soldiers,  merchants,  and  laborers. 
None  of  these  can  intermarry,  or  even  eat  and 
drink  together.  Those  who  have  been  expelled 
from  their  caste  are  called  pa'ri  ahs,  or  outcasts 
from  society. 


For  Recitation: 

III.  I.  In  what  do  the  Japanese  resemble  the 
Chinese?  In  what  do  they  differ?  Useful  trees 
of  Japan. 

2.  Japanese  homes.     Education. 

3.  Comparative  size  of  British  India. 

4.  Animals. 

5.  Chief  vegetable  productions.  Chief  food 
products.     Minerals. 

6.  Three  leading  manufactures.  Cashmere 
shawls. 


ASIA. 


7.  Name   the   four  castes  of  Hindoo  society. 
Rules  that  govern  them.     What  is  a  pariah  ? 


IV.  The  Remaining  Countries  of  Asia. 
For  Reading: 

The  peninsula  east  of  Hindostan  was  formerly 
called  Farther  India.  The  people,  however,  with 
the  exception  of  those  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
are  of  the  MongoHan  race,  like  the  Chinese,  while 
the  inhabitants  of  India  are  Caucasians.  For 
this  reason  the  country  is  now  called  Indo-China. 
The  climate  and  products  are  about  the  same  as 
those  of  India, 

West  of  the  three  great  eastern  countries  of 
Asia  are  the  wild  tribes  of  Afghanistan  and 
Beloochistan.  Next  beyond  these  come  the  Per- 
sians, a  gay,  polite,  and  hospitable  people,  and 
formerly  a  powerful  nation.  They  carry  on  large 
manufactures  in  silks,  carpets,  and  brocades. 
Two  thirds  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  rearing 
herds  of  cattle  and  flocks  of  sheep.  The  sheep 
of  Persia  are  famous  for  their  great  size. 

West  of  Persia  lies  Turkey  in  Asia/  under 
the  rule  of  the  Sultan  at  Constantinople.  The 
Turks  eat  with  their  fingers  instead  of  forks,  sit 
on  the  floor,  and  smoke  long  pipes.  They  are 
fond  of  coffee  and  opium.  They  are  Mo  h^m' 
me  dans,  and  believe  in  the  Koran  instead  of  the 
Bible.  Smyrna  is  the  largest  city,  and  is  famous 
for  its  export  of  dried  figs.     The  Smyrna  figs  are 

1  Reading  Hour:  Dead  Sea  Expedition,  p.  260,  Jordan;  p.  307,  Pillar 
of  Salt. 

Animals  of  Asia. 

The  Sable  is  a  little,  slender  animal  of  the  weasel  kind, 
which  inhabits  the  forests  of  the  extreme  north  of  Asia. 
Its  fur  is  very  valuable,  commanding  a  high  price  in  Eu- 
ropean markets.  The  hunter  who  pursues  this  creature 
exposes  himself  to  great  peril  amid  the  Arctic  snows, 
frequently  losing  his  life.  The  sable,  like  other  weasels, 
lives  chiefly  by  catching  birds  and  small  animals  and 


sucking  their  blood. The  Wolverene  is  a  small,  fero- 
cious creature,  whose  voracious  appetite  has  earned  for 
it  the  name  of  glutton.  The  sable  hunters  detest  it,  for 
the  wolverene  is  in  the  habit  of  following  them  round 
and  stealing  the  bait  from  their  traps.  Should  a  sable 
be  found  caught,  it,  too,  is  carried  off  by  the  wolverene. 

The  Camel  of  Arabia  is  an  animal  of  but  one  hump, 

and  is  superior  to  the  two-humped  camel  in  almost  every 
respect.  Its  hump  is  mostly  fat,  and  on  long  journeys, 
when  poorly  fed,  the  hump  gives  up  its  fat  for  the  sup- 
port of  the  beast.  The  camel  is  able,  also,  when  drink- 
ing, to  lay  in  a  quantity  of  water  against  the  day  of  future 
thirst,  and,  being  thus  provided  with  food  and  water  for 
a  long  journey,  it  has  been  called  "the  ship  of  the  des- 
ert." The  pace  of  the  common  camel  used  in  the  carry- 
ing of  merchandise  is  only  about  three  miles  an  hour, 
though  the  Arabian  camel,  or  drom'(drum)edary,  will 
carry  its  rider  from  eight  to  ten  miles  an  hour,  and  keep 

up  the  speed  for  twenty-four  hours. The  Orang  Ou- 

tang  belongs  to  the  monkey  tribe,  and  of  all  that  tribe 
it  most  resembles  man.  Its  hair  is  of  a  reddish  chestnut 
color.  It  lives  mostly  in  the  trees  of  dense  forests, 
swinging  itself  from  branch  to  branch  by  its  long  arms, 
which  reach,  when  the  creature  stands  on  its  hind  legs, 
nearly  to  the  ground.  The  orang  is  very  powerful,  and 
the  male  is  a  creature  of  hideous  appearance.  When 
tamed  it  soon  learns  to  drink  tea  and  coffee,  and  becomes 
fond  of  spirituous  liquors.     The  African  chimpanzee  is 

a  species  of  orang  outang. Unlike  the  domestic  ass,  or 

donkey,  the  Wild  Ass  is  fleet  of  foot,  and  cannot  be  over- 
taken by  a  swift  Arabian  horse.  Not  even  a  greyhound 
can  follow  it  with  any  hope  of  success  on  hilly  or  rocky 
ground.  It  lives  in  troops,  occupying  the  hills  in  sum- 
mer and  the  plains  in  winter.  Its  flesh  is  esteemed  a  del- 
icacy.  The   Gazelle  is  a  species  of  antelope,  swift, 

graceful,  and,  like  other  antelopes,  living  in  herds.  It 
is   celebrated  by  poets  for  its  soft  and  lustrous  eyes. 

The  Yak  is  a. species  of  wild  ox,  capable  of  being 

tamed  and  used  for  work.  When  overloaded,  it  vents 
its  discontent  in  continuous,  loud,  melancholy  grunts, 
and  is  therefore  called  the  Grunting  Ox. The  Ele- 
phant inhabits  the  deep  forest  regions  of  tropical  Asia 
and  Africa,  and  is  the  largest  animal  now  living  on  the 
earth.  The  Asiatic  elephant  can  be  distinguished  from 
the  African  by  the  shape  of  the  head  and  by  the  ears. 
The  head  of  the  Asiatic  is  long,  the  forehead  dished,  and 
the  ears  small.  The  African  elephant  has  a  short  head, 
a  bulging  forehead,  and  enormous  ears.  Both  Asiatic  and 
African  elephants  live  in  herds.  The  elephant,  when 
drinking,  first  sucks  up  water  into  its  trunk,  then  turning 
the  trunk  into  its  mouth,  it  shoots  the  contents  into  its 
stomach,  making  a  splash  that  can  be  distinctly  heard 
by  one  standing  near. The  Tiger  and  Lion  are  the 


ANIMALS. 


>   ^     cS   IS    to 


AFRICA. 


the  finest  in  the  world.     Damascus,  in  Turkey, 
is  the  oldest  city  in  the  world. 

Five  things  about  Arabia^  will  especially  in- 
terest us: 

1.  Deserts  form  the  greater  part  of  its  surface, 
and  its  climate  is  one  of  the  hottest  in  the  world. 

2.  The  finest  coffee  in  the  world,  the  M5'cha,^ 
is  raised  in  Arabia. 

3.  The  swiftest  and  most  beautiful  horses  are 
the  Arabian  steeds. 

4.  The  Mohammedan  religion  was  founded 
there  by  Mohammed,  a  native  of  Mecca,  and  his 
followers  make  annual  journeys  to  that  city  in 
honor  of  the  event. 

5.  A  large  number  of  the  inhabitants  have  no 
fixed  residence,  but  wander  over  the  country  with 
flocks  and  herds.     Such  people  are  called  mm' ads. 

We  may  learn,  also,  that  Arabia  exports  drugs, 
dates,  raisins,  and  wheat. 


For  Recitation: 

IV.   I.  Former   name  of    Indo-China.      Why 
changed?     Climate  and  products. 

1  Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  24.  The  Child  of  the  Desert. 

2  Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard,  p.  75,  The  Story  of  Coffee. 


2.  Characteristics  of  the  Persians.  Manufact- 
ures,    Chief  pursuits. 

3.  Habits  of  the  Turks.    Religion.    Damascus. 

4.  Surface  of  Arabia.  Climate.  What  of  coffee 
in  Arabia?  Horses?  Who  founded  the  Moham- 
medan religion?  Where?  Habits  of  life  in  Ara- 
bia.    Exports. 


Topical  Review  of  Asia. 

Write,  in  your  own  laitguage,  all  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  Asia  that  you  know,  using,  as  a  guide ^ 
the  following  topics: 

Products: 
(Mineral,   vegetable,   ani- 
mal.) 


Position. 

Extent. 

Mountain  Systems. 

Drainage: 

(Slopes  and  rivers.) 

Climate. 

People. 

Animals. 


Occupations: 

(Farming,  manufacturing, 
mining,  commerce.) 

Countries. 
Cities  and  Towns: 
(Location,  for  what  noted, 
etc.) 


AFRICA. 


QUESTIONS     ON    THE    MAP. 

[Questions  in  italics  to  be  answered  from  the  open  map.] 

Position,  Extent,  and  Form. — In  what  hemisphere 
is  Africa?  Passing  along  the  coast  of  Africa  from  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez  through  the  Red  Sea  and  around  to 
Alexandria  in  Egypt,  name  the  seas,  straits,  gulfs,  and 
oceans  that  border  it. 

What  is  the  scale  of  this  map  of  Africa?  Is  it  drawn 
on  a  larger  or  smaller  scale  than  the  map  of  Asia? 
Measure  the  map  from  Cape  Bon  to  Cape  Agulhas 
(a  gobl'yas)  and  find  the  length  of  the  Grand  Division 
from  north  to  south.  Measure  the  map  from  Cape 
Guardafui  (gwar  da  fwee')  to  Cape  Verde  and  find  the 
width  from  east  to  west. 


What  is  a  coast  line?  Is  the  coast  line  of  Africa  regu- 
lar or  irregular?  More,  or  less  irregular  than  the  coast 
line  of  Asia?  Than  the  coast  line  of  Europe?  Of  North 
America?  Which  of  the  Grand  Divisions  does  Africa 
most  resemble  in  coast  line?     In  shape? 

Mountains. — Where  do  you  find  most  of  the  mountain 
ranges  of  Africa — in  the  interior,  or  near  the  coast? 
What  is  their  general  direction?  Where  are  the  Atlas 
Mountains,  and  what  is  their  direction?  The  Kong 
Mountains? 

Rivers  and  Slopes. — Describe  the  Nile  River.  De- 
scribe the  Niger,  the  Congo,  and  the  Zdm  be' [b a) zi Rivers. 
At  what  point  do  the  White  and  Blue  Rivers  unite  to 
form  the  Nile?  From  Khartoum  (kar  tdbm')  to  Cairo 
(ki'ro)  do  you  go  mostly  up  hill  or  down?  _ 


^elC'    SOCOTRA  I. 

10-1 


£. D.  StrK>sa,Jj>ti.S.^ 


124 


AFRICA. 


Climate. — In  what  zone  does  the  most  of  Africa  lie? 
Would  you  expect  to  find  its  climate  warmer  or  colder 
than  that  of  South  America?     Why? 

Countries  and  Towns. — Bound  each  of  the  following 
countries  and  name  the  capital :  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis, 
Trip'o  li,  Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Cape  Colony.  In  what 
part  of  Africa  is  Transvaal  (trSns  val')?  Orange  Free 
State?  Zululand?  Natal?  Sou  dan'?  The  Desert  of 
Sahara? 


DESCRIPTION. 

I.  Size — C1.IMAT15 — Naturai.  Fkatures — 
Inhabitants. 

For  Reading: 

In  size,  Africa  is  the  second  Grand  Division 


Restixg  in  the  Desert. 

of  the  earth.  It  is  three  times  as  large  as  Europe, 
but  it  is  the  least  important  of  all  the  Grand 
Divisions.  It  consists  of  a  vast  table-land,  with 
narrow  strips  of  low  plain  along  the  coast.  The 
principal  mountain  ranges  are  on  the  edges  of  this 
table-land. 

On  the  north  a  narrow  strip  of  country  border- 
ing the  Mediterranean  Sea  has  a  temperate  cli- 
mate, and  yields  cotton,  dates,  grain,  mulberries, 
grapes,  and  olives. 

South  of  this  lies  the  great  Desert  of  Sahara,' 
nearly  as  large  as  the  United  States.  Though  a 
large  part  of  it  is  heated  sand  and  rock,  there  are 

1  Reading  Hour:  Bancroft's  Fourth  Reader,  p.  202,  Sahara. 


here  and  there  quite  extensive  oa'seg,  on  which 
many  thousand  people  have  their  homes.  Across 
this  burning  tract  caravans  of  camels  go,  bearing 
cotton  cloth  and  trinkets  for  the  negro  tribes  that 
inhabit  the  country  south  of  the  desert,  and 
bringing  back  from  them,  for  the  people  of  Eu- 
rope and  America,  ivory,  gold  dust,  and  ostrich 
feathers. 

South  of  the  great  desert  lies  a  country  but 
little  cultivated,  which  stretches  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  the  Grand  Division.  Heavy  forests, 
overgrown  with  vines,  cover  the  greater  part  of 
this  region.  One  tree,  the  ba'obab,  has  been 
found,  measuring  in  some  instances  ninety  feet 
around  the  trunk.  It  is  estimated  that  some  of 
these  trees  haye  been  growing  for  5,000  years. 
The  lower  branches  sometimes  grow  out  horizon- 
tally sixty  feet  in  length  and  then  droop  to  the 
ground,  concealing  the  trunk. 

Large  and  fierce  wild  animals  are  found  here  in 


Animate  of  Africa. 

The  Leopard  is  a  beautiful  and  graceful  creature  of  the' 
cat  kind,  much  dreaded  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  region 
in  which  it  lives,  on  account  of  the  depredations  made 
upon  their  domestic  animals.  The  skin  of  the  leopard 
rivals  that  of  the  tiger  in  beauty,  and  is  equally  prized 

for  rugs  and  robes. The  Gorilla  is  the  most  powerful 

of  the  ape  family,  and  is  greatly  feared  by  the  negroes 
of  the  countries  that  it  inhabits.  It  is  strong,  ferocious, 
and  pitilessly  cruel,  killing  for  the  enjoyment  of  it,  never 
eating  its  victim.  The  negroes  regard  the  gorilla  as  em- 
bodying the  spirit  of  their  dead  kings.  Young  gorillas 
have  been  taken  by  Europeans,  but  they  do  not  live  long 

in  captivity. The  Hippopotamus  (sea  horse)  and  the 

Rhinoceros  are  both  of  the  elephant  family,  the  large 
teeth  of  the  hippopotamus  furnishing  a  very  white  and 
delicate  ivory.  The  hippopotamus  lives  mostly  in  the 
water;  the  rhinoceros,  on  land.  The  latter  animal  sleeps 
in  the  daytime,  and  makes  long  night  journeys  in  search 
of  food.  The  hippopotamus  is  a  comparatively  good 
tempered  animal,  but  the  rhinoceros  is  fierce  and  dan- 
gerous, more  feared  by  the  natives  than  even  the  lion. 

The  Hyena  is  a  most  disgusting  creature,  living  on 

carrion  in  preference  to  fresh  food.     It  is  a  great  coward, 


I 


ANIMALS. 


125 


and  will  attack  nothing  that  does  not  run  away  from  it. 
The  Arabs  express  their  contempt  for  the  hyena  by 
throwing  mud  into  its  eyes,  gagging  it,  and  turning  it 
over  to  the  women  and  children 
to  stone  to  death. - 
The    Zebra,  of  all 
the   ass  tribe,    is 
far     the     most 
beautiful.      Its 
general  col- 
or is  a 


The  crocodile  of  the  Nile  is  called  the  true  crocodile, 
that  of  the  Ganges,  which  is  the  largest  known  reptile, 
and  the  alligator  of  North  America,  being  varieties  of 

the  well  known  crocodile  of   Egypt. The   Horned 

Viper  is  a  reptile  of  northern  Africa,  about  two  feet  in  length, 
whose  bite  is  extremely  poisonous,  only  less  so  than  that  of  the 

cobra.     It    can  endure    long 

''k:^  fasts  without  injury,  and  has 

"       been  known  to  be  kept  in 

a  glass  jar  for  two  years, 

L  without    food,      seeming 

all   the    time    perfectly 

lively,     and    shedding 

its  skin  as  usual. 

The  Ostrich  belongs 
to   the      group     of 
birds  called  run- 
ners, and  is  the 


creamy  white,       '^°=°'«^^  -  - 
marked  all  over 

its  body  with  velvety  black  stripes.     It 
is  untamable,  and,  like  the  wild  ass, 
lives  in  hilly  districts  and  mountain 

ranges. The    Gnu    is    a    creature 

classed   among   the   antelopes,    and  so 
peculiar    in   form  that  at  first  sight  the 
spectator  may  be  in  doubt  whether  it  is  a 
horse,  an  antelope,  or  a  bull.     When  alarmed 
it  becomes  exceedingly  wild  and  fantastic  in 
its  movements  and  maneuvers,  earning  for 
itself  from  the  Dutch  settlers  in  southern     = 

Africa  the  name  of    Wildebeest. The      fcs| 

Giraffe  holds  its  head  high  above  that  of  any    ^^ 
C)ther  living  creature,  being,  when  full  grown, 
from  eighteen  to  twenty  feet  in  height.     It  is 
peaceable  in  disposition,  living  in  herds  aver- 
aging about  sixteen  in  number.     Its   taste  is 
very    nice,  rejecting  everything  but   the  most 
delicate  vegetation.     In   a   wild   state  it  feeds     ^ 
chiefly  upon  the  leaves  of  trees,  being  able  to  bring 
i';s  mouth  to  the  ground  only  with  great  difl&culty. 
It  has  never  been  known  to  utter  a  sound  of  any 
kind,  even  when  severely  wounded  and  struggling 

ii  the  agonies  of  death. The  Crocodile,  though 

a  much  dreaded  reptile,  is  of  considerable  use  in  the  region 
of  the  Nile  in  devouring  putrefying  flesh,  which  would 
otherwise  spread  disease.  It  is  covered  with  horny 
plates  so  hard  as  to  turn  steel  weapons  and  even  bullets. 


■ 


largest  and 
strongest       of 
the  group,  being 
from   six  to   eight 
feet  in  height.      The 
ostrich  lives  on  wild 
melons,     grass,     and 
grain.     Its   nest   is  a 
shallow  hole  scooped 
in  the  sand,  in  which 
eggs   are  set    upright, 
with   other    eggs   placed 
around  the  margin.     The 
eggs    are  hatched  mainly  by 
the  heat  of  the  sun,  though 
covered  by  the  parent  birds  at 
night,  the   male  bird  doing  his 
share.       Bach    egg    weighs    about 
fe^^i^       three  pounds.     The  shells  are  so  thick 
"^        and  hard  that  the  eggs  may  be  safely 
carried  in  sacks  thrown  over  the  back  of 
horse.     The  value  of  this   bird  to  com- 
merce lies  in  its  feathers,  which  are  familiar  to  all. 

Reading  Hour:  Wood's  Mammalia,  p.  166,  The  L,eopard;  p.  15,  The 
Gorilla;  p.  759,  The  Hippopotamus  and  Rhinoceros;  p.  218,  The 
Hyena;  p.  730,  The  Zebra;  p.  658,  The  Gnu;  p.  684,  The  Giraffe. 

Wood's  Reptiles,  p.  29,  The  Crocodile;  p.  107,  The  Horned  Viper. 

Wood's  Birds,  p.  644,  The  Ostrich. 


GWU^ 


126 


AFRICA. 


\ 


greater  numbers  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world. 
Crocodiles  abound  in  the  lakes  and  rivers.  It  is 
said  that  more  than  a  thousand  elephants  are 
sometimes  seen  in  one  herd.  They  are  not  tamed 
and  taught  to  work  as  in  Asia,  but  are  killed  for 
their  flesh  and  tusks. 

Throughout  the  great  desert  and  the  countries 
of  Africa  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean  and 
Red  Seas  the  inhabitants  are  of  the  Caucasian 
race.  South  of  the  Sahara  they  are  nearly  all 
negroes/  and  most  of  them  are  savages.  In 
Soudan  there  are  some  half  civilized  people,  and 
in  southern  Africa  the  Zulus  and  some  others  are 
intelligent  tribes,  having  flocks  and  herds  and  cul- 
tivating corn,  rice,  and  other  plants.  One  of  the 
tribes  in  the  south  of  Africa  is  said  to  live  in  the 
tree  tops.  The  Hottentots  are  a  degraded  people. 
The  Bushmen,  a  tribe  of  Hottentots,  have  neither 
homes  nor  tents.  They  sleep  in  any  shelter  that 
offers — a  bush,  a  hole  in  the  ground,  a  cleft  in 
the  rock — and  subsist  on  grasshoppers,  roots, 
and  worms. 


desert.     South  of  the  desert — negroes.     Describe 
the  Zulus.     The  Hottentots. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  I.  Commit  to  memory  the  first  paragraph. 

2.  In  the  northern  part  of  Africa  a  narrow  strip 
of  productive  country  with  a  temperate  climate 
borders  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

3.  The  Desert  of  Sahara  lies  south  of  this  strip. 
Some  fertile  tracts  in  the  desert,  called  oases,  are 
inhabited  by  a  considerable  population.  Com- 
merce across  the  desert  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  camels. 

4.  South  of  the  Desert  of  Sahara  the  country 
is  overgrown  with  great  forests.  Large  and  fierce 
land  and  water  animals  abound. 

5.  The  Caucasian  race  inhabits  the  countries 
of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  oases  of  the 

1  Reading  Hour:  World  at  Home,  vol.  I.,  p.  77,  Les.  34,  The  Black 
Man  at  Home. 
Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  74,  The  LitUe  Dark  Girl. 


II.  The  Countries  of  Africa. 

For  Reading: 

The  states  of  Morocco,  Algeria,  Tunis,  and 
Tripoli  are  called  the  Barbary  States.  All  ex- 
cept Morocco  are  subject  to  foreign  powers. 


Water  Merchants  of  Kgypt. 

Egypt  is  the  only  countr>^  of  Africa  possessing 
much  interest.  Thousands  of  years  ago  it  was 
the  home  of  a  great  and  populous  nation  that  built 
magnificent  temples  and  massive  pyramids  of 
stone  for  the  burial  of  their  kings  and  great  men. 
Some  of  these  pyramids  were  twenty  years  or 
more  in  building,  and  employed  100,000  men  at  a 
time.  One  of  them  is  460  feet  high,  and  covers 
thirteen  acres  of  ground. 

Egypt  is  a  very  productive  country,  made  so 
by  the  River  Nile.^     For  several  hundred  miles 

1  Reading  Hour:  Parker's  Hoiu  to  Study  Geography,  p.  170,  The 
Story  of  the  Nile. 


OCEANIA. 


127 


above  the  mouth  of  the  river  it  never  rains,  and 
yet  in  the  month  of  June  the  river  in  this  part  of 
the  country  begins  to  rise,  and  continues  to  do  so 
for  several  months,  overflowing  the  whole  valley. 
This  rise  is  due  to  the  heavy  rains  that  flood  the 
streams  in  the  upper  part  of  the  valley.  When 
the  water  goes  down,  the  whole  valley  is  covered 
with  a  rich  soil,  in  which  the  farmer  plants  his 
seed. 

The  dwellings  of  the  farmers  stand  back  from 
the  river  on  the  high  ground  above  the  flood. 
Canals  are  dug  from  the  river  to  water  the  fields 
in  the  dry  season,  and  at  this  season  men  and 
women  carry  water  in  huge  bottles,  made  of  the 
skins  of  animals,  to  distant  villages,  to  sell  for 
household  use. 

The  remaining  countries  along  the  seacoast  are 
of  but  little  importance. 

Some  Dutch  and  English  colonies  are  in  the 
southern  part. 

On  the  west  the  colony  of  Sierra  Leo'ne, 
under  the  government  of  Great  Britain,  was 
founded  as  a  home  for  negroes  liberated  from 
slave  ships. 

Liberia  is  a  republic  established  for  negroes 
who  were  once  slaves  in  the  United  States. 

Madagascar  is  a  kingdom  with  several  millions 


of  inhabitants  of  the  Malay  race,  but  professing 
Christianity. 


For  Recitation,: 

II.   I.  Commit  to  memory  the  first  paragraph. 

2.  Egypt  is  interesting  on  account  of  the  great- 
ness of  its  ancient  government,  its  wonderful 
pyramids,  and  its  rich  soil.  Its  productiveness 
comes  from  the  yearly  overflow  of  the  Nile. 

3.  Except  the  Mediterranean  countries  and 
Eg>'pt,  the  countries  of  Africa  are  unimportant. 


Topical  Review  op  Africa. 

Write,  in  your  own  language,  all  of  the  geog- 
raphy of  Africa  that  you  know,  tising,  as  a  guide, 
the  following  topics: 

Animals. 


Position. 
Extent. 
Coast  Line. 
Mountains. 

Drainage:  Occupations. 

(Slopes  and  rivers. ) 

Climate. 
People. 


Products: 
(Mineral,   vegetable,   ani- 
mal.) 


Countries. 

Cities  and  Towns. 


OCEANIA. 


For  Reading: 

Oceania  differs  from  the  other  Grand  Divis- 
ions in  consisting  wholly  of  islands. 

Those  of  Malaysia,  lying  entirely  within  the 
Torrid  Zone,  are  large,  populous,  and  productive. 
They  have  a  hot,  moist  climate,  and  are  subject 
to  destructive  earthquakes  and  violent  wind 
storms,  called  monsoons.  Hurricanes  sometimes 
sweep  over  the  seas.     For  the  most  part,  the  soil 


is  fertile  and  the  vegetation  is  rich  and  rank. 
The  wild  animals  and  reptiles  are  of  the  same 
kind  as  those  found  in  southern  Asia.  They  are 
large  and  fierce,  and  the  reptiles  poisonous.  The 
native  race  is  the  Malay,  or  Brown  Race.^  The 
chief  products  of  the  soil  are  rice,  sugar,  nut- 
meg, cloves,  cinnamon,  cotton,  and  sago.  Date, 
cocoanut,   and  camphor  trees  are   seen    almost 

1  Reading  Hour:  Seven  Little  Sisters,  p.  5,  The  Little  Brown  Baby. 


OCEANIA. 


29 


QUESTIONS    ON    THE    MAP. 

1.  Into  what  three  divisions  is  Oceania  divided? 
Which  division  lies  nearest  to  Asia?  In  what  direction 
from  Asia  is  Malaysia?  In  what  ocean  does  it  lie?  In 
what  zone?  Which  is  the  largest  island  of  this  division? 
\Borneo.'\  Give  the  direction  of  the  following  islands 
from  Borneo:  Philippine  Islands;  Celebes;  Java;  Suma- 
tra.    Which  island  of  the  division  lies  nearest  to  Asia? 

2.  In  what  waters  does  Australasia  lie?  In  what 
zones?     Which  is  the  largest  island   of   this   division? 


What  large  island  north  of  it?  What  island  south  of  the 
eastern  part?  What  large  island  southeast?  What 
group  of  islands  east  of  New  Guinea?  What  large  group 
of  small  islands  north  of  the  Solomon  Islands?  Name 
the  divisions  of  Australia  and  their  capitals.  Tell  in 
what  part  of  Australia  each  division  is.  In  sailing  from 
San  Francisco,  which  side  of  Australia  will  you  first 
reach? 

3.  In  what  ocean  is  Pol  y  ne'sia  (she  a)  ?  In  what  zone? 
In  what  direction  from  North  America?  In  what  part 
of  Oceania? 


ever>'where.  Valuable  minerals  are  also  found, 
the  chief  of  which  are  gold,  antimony,  and  dia- 
monds. 

The  Philippine  Islands  belong  to  Spain.  Ex- 
cept some  very  small  possessions  by  the  Portu- 
guese and  English,  the  remaining  islands  belong 
to  Holland.  The  bamboo  is  much  used  for 
houses,  and  the  chief  towns  are  often  built  over 
the  water  on  stakes  driven  into  the  ground. 
Stakes  driven  into  the  ground  in  this  way  are 
called///^  J. 

Borneo  is  as  large  as  Texas,  and  has  mines  of 
gold  and  antimony. 

The  natives  of  Java  are  more  civilized  than 
those  of  the  other  islands.  We  know  of  Java 
especially  as  a  coffee  country.  Sugar  is  also  an 
important  product. 

Gold  mines,  petroleum,  and  dense  forests  dis- 
tinguish Sumatra. 

Australasia  contains  the  largest  island  in  the 
world — Australia — which  is  sometimes  called  a 
continent.  It  has  no  high  mountains  and  much 
desert  land.  Much  of  the  vegetation  and  many 
of  the  animals  are  natives  of  no  other  part  of  the 
world,  Eu  ca  lyp'tus  trees,  commonly  cultivated 
in  California,  grow  wild  only  in  Australia  and  a 
few  adjacent  islands,  where  there  are  about  150 
kinds.  Some  strange  animals,  called  Marsu'pi- 
als,'    are    natives  chiefly  of  this  country.     The 

1  Reading  Hour:    Animal  Memoirs,  p.  164,  Wallaby  Joe. 
Fliers,  Creepers,  and  Swimmers ,  p.  186,  Stories  of  Marsupials. 


kangaroo  is  the  largest  of  these  animals,  and  is 
often  six  feet  high  when  standing  on  its  hind 
legs.  '  Though  timid,  it  will  sometimes  turn  on  its 
pursuers,  clasp  a  dog  or  a  man  in  its  arms,  and 
leaping  quickly  to  a  water  hole,  plunge  its  enemy 
in  and  drown  him. 

l^he  richest  gold  mines  in  the  world  are  said  to 
be  in  Australia.  The  usual  crops  of  Europe  and 
America  are  raised,  but  wool  is  the  chief  article 
of  export.  Excellent  horses  are  also  reared  and 
shipped  to  India.  The  natives  are  a  degraded 
race,  and  are  fast  disappearing.  The  island  be- 
longs to  Great  Britain. 

Of  New  Guinea  but  little  is  known.  The 
natives  are  hideous  creatures.  The  Dutch  have 
some  settlements  there. 

New  Zealand  also  belongs  to  Great  Britain.  It 
has  a  delightful  climate,  and  its  products  resemble 
those  of  Australia. 

Polynesia  (many  islands)  consists  of  an  im- 
mense number  of  small  islands.  The  natives  of 
Polynesia  are  more  finely  formed  than  those  of 
the  other  divisions  of  Oceania.  The  climate  of 
these  islands  is  generally  agreeable. 

All  of  the  islands  are  volcanic.  Sonje  of  them 
have  sunk  beneath  the  sea,  and  left  above  the  sur- 
face only  a  fringe  of  eSr'al  that  surrounded  them 
near  the  water's  edge.  This  fringe  of  coral  is 
like  a  ring,  with  one  or  two  breaks  in  it,  through 
which  the  sea  enters.    The  land  is  called  an  a  toll\ 


II 


I30 


BOOKS  FOR  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 


and  the  water  inside  is  called  a  la  goon' .  The 
coral  is  the  lime  left  from  bodies  of  millions  of 
small  creatures  when  they  die.  These  creatures 
are  called /o/'//i".  They  begin  their  work  at  the 
bottom  of  the  sea,  near  the  shore  where  the  water 
is  shallow.  As  the  volcanic  island,  through  many 
centuries,  gradually  sinks,  these  little  creatures  as 
gradually  build  to  the  surface  by  depositing  the 
limestone  that  makes  the  solid  part  of  their  bodies. 
Then  weeds  and  seeds  are  washed  upon  it  by  the 
sea.  The  weeds  decay  and  make  soil;  the  seeds 
grow  and  become  plants  and  trees. 

Cocoanut  and  banana  trees  grow  almost  every- 
where. Sugar  cane  and  cotton  are  largely  culti- 
vated. The  Hawaiian  (ha  wi'an)  group,  or 
Sandwich  Islands,  are  under  the  government  of 
a  native  king.  They  raise  a  variety  of  crops,  of 
which  sugar  is  the  chief.  Many  of  the  sugar 
plantations  are  owned  by  citizens  of  the  United 
States.     They  have  a  large  trade  with  the  United 

1  Reading  Hour:  Builders  of  the  Sea,  p.  9,  Corals. 


States,  and  especially  with  California.  Raw 
sugar  is  the  chief  article  of  export.  The  Samoan 
Islands  are  under  the  united  protection  of  the 
United  States,  Germany,  and  England,  and  civili- 
zation is  more  advanced  there  than  elsewhere  in 
Polynesia. 


For  Recitation: 

1.  How  does  Oceania  differ  from  the  other 
Grand  Divisions  ? 

2.  Select  the  statement  that  most  interests  you 
in  paragraph  two,  and  learn  it.  Also  the  state- 
ment that  you  think  most  important. 

3.  Do  the  same  in  paragraph  three. 

4.  In  the  description  of  Australasia  select  the 
two  statements  that  most  interest  you,  and  learn 
them.  Also  two  that  you  think  the  most  im- 
portant. 

5.  Do  with  the  description  of  Polynesia  as  with 
that  of  Australasia. 


LIST  OF  BOOKS  FOR  SUPPLEMENTARY  READING. 


[Authors' names  in  italics;  Publishers',  inroinan.'] 

How  to  Study  Geography Parker. 

World  at  Home,  six  vols.  .     .     .     Thos.  Nelson  &  Sons. 
Gypsal  Relief  Maps     .     .     .     Bay  State  Publishing  Co. 

Geography  with  Sand  Modeling Frye. 

World  by  the  Fireside Kirby. 

World  at  Large. 

Mammalia Wood. 

Reptiles Wood. 

Birds Wood. 

Methods  and  Aids  in  Geography King. 

Geographical  Reader Scribner. 

Seven  Little'  Sisters Lee  &  Shephard. 

Easy  Steps  for  Little  Feet Swinton. 

Iceland,  Greenland,  and  the  Faroe  Islands     Harper  Bros. 

Fox  Hunting. 

Geographical  Reader Johonnot. 


Our  World  Reader HaltX 

Mexico  and  her  Lost  Provinces Bishop\ 

On  the  Amazons. 

Brazil,  Amazons Smith\ 

Afloat  in  the  Forest. 

Aunt  Martha's  Corner  Cupboard Kirby. 

The  World;  its  Chief  Cities  and  People. 

Holland de  AmicisA 

Spain  and  the  Spaniards de  AmicisX 

Constantinople de  Amta's.^ 

Dead  Sea  Expedition. 
Bancroft's  Fourth  Reader. 

Animal  Memoirs,  Parts  I.,  II LocAwood.l 

Fliers,  Creepers,  and  Swimmers       ....    Johonnot.\ 
Builders  of  the  Sea. 

Life  Among  the  Germans Parry. \ 

California  Second  Reader. 

When  I  was  a  Boy  in  China     ....     Yan  Phou  Lee.\ 


PRONUNCIA  TIONS. 


131 


PRONUNCIATIONS. 


Af  ghan  is  tan'. 

Agulhas  (a  gobl'yas). 

A  leu'ti  an(she  an), 

Al  ma  den'. 

Al'tai(ti). 

A  moor'. 

An'a  h^im. 

Ani'des(diz). 

Ap  pa  la'chi  an. 

Ar'gen  tine. 

Ar'kan  sas(saw). 

Asia  (a'shg  a). 

Az'te€. 

Bab  el  man'deb. 

Ba  ha'ma. 

Bahia  (ba  e'a). 

Bal'tic. 

Baton  Rouge(ba.t'unroozh). 

Bel  00  chis  tan'. 

Ben  gal'. 

Be'ring. 

Ber'lin. 

Bgrn. 

Bo  go  ta'. 

Boi'ge. 

Bor'ne  o. 

Bos'po  rus. 

Brah  ma  poo'tra. 

Bra  zil'. 

Bu  cha(ko)  rest'. 

Buenos  Ayres  (bo  nus  a'riz). 

Bill  ga'ri  a. 

Cairo  (ki'ro). 

Cal  la'o. 

Cam  bo'di  a. 

Can  ta'bri  an. 

Ca  ra'cas. 

Car  ib  be'an. 

Carquinez  (kar  kee'nez), 

Cat'te  gat. 

Cau  ca'sian. 

Cau'ca  sus. 

Ca  yenne'. 

Cgl'e  be§. 

Cheyenne  (shi  en'). 


ChSs'a  peake. 

Chil'i. 

Chris  ti  a'ni  a. 

Col'fax. 

Col  o  ra'do. 

Concord  (konk'urd.) 

C6s'ta  Ri'ca. 

Co  re'a. 

Dar  da  nelles'(nelz). 

Dei'  Moinej'. 

De  troit', 

Di  a'blo. 

Ec  ua  dor'. 

Edinburgh  (ed'in  bur  ruh). 

Esquimaux  (gs'ke  moz). 

Eu  ro  pe'an. 

Gal  H'nas. 

GSn'ggg. 

Gal'ves  ton. 

Gib  ral'tar. 

Guardafui  (gwar  da  fwee'). 

Gua(gaw)te  ma'la. 

Guayaquil  (gwi  a  keel') 

Gui(ghe)a'na. 

Hawaiian  (ha  wi'an). 

Hay'ti. 

Hel  e'na. 

Him  a'la  ya. 

Ho  ang  ho'. 

Hon  dii'ras. 

II  li  noLy'. 

i  ngz'. 

Ja  ma/'ca. 

Japura  (ha  pob'ra). 

Ja'va. 

Kam  cha.t'ka. 

Khar  toum'. 

Li'ma. 

lyoire  (Iwar). 

Los  an'ge  leg. 

Ma'dre. 

Ma  drid'. 

Ma  lay'. 

Ma  na'gua. 

Ma  na'os. 


Ma're. 

Ma  ri'd. 

Mich'i  gan. 

Mon  go'li  an. 

Mon  ta'na. 

Mon  te  vid'e  o. 

Mont  perier(yer). 

Newfoundland    (new'fund 

land). 
New  Or'le  ang. 
Ni  3.g'a  ra. 
Nic  ar  a'gua. 
Nip'i  gon. 
O'bi. 
O  bi'dos. 
O  khotsk'. 
O'ma  ha. 
On  la  ri'o, 
Pan'a  ma. 
Par  a  mar'i  bo. 
Pa  ri'me(ma). 
Per'sia(she  a). 
Per'sian. 
Phil'ip  pine. 
Pla'cer  ville. 
Pol  y  ne'sia(she  a). 
Po  po  cat  a  petl'. 
Por'to  Ri'co. 
Pu'get. 
Pyr'en  ee§. 
Quito  (ki'to). 
Ra'leigh(ly). 
Riine. 
R/?6ne. 

Ri'o  Gran'de(da). 
Ri  o  Ja  nei'(ne)ro. 
Russia  (rush'e  a). 
Saguenay  (sag  a  na'). 
Sa  li'nas. 
San  An'dreas. 
San  Ber  nar  di'no. 
San  Joaquin(wah  keen') 
San  Jos^(ho  za'). 
San'ta  Fe. 
San'ta  I  nSz'. 


San'ta  Ma  ri'a. 

San  ti  a'go. 

Se  at'tle. 

Seine  (sane). 

Si  er'ra  Le  o'ne. 

Si  er'ra  Ne  va'da. 

Skag'er  Rack. 

So  la'no. 

Sophia  (so  fe'a). 

Sou  dan'. 

Su  ez'. 

St.  Louis  (saint  Idb'i). 

Suisun  (soo  e  soon'). 

Su  ma'tra. 

Tah'le  quah. 

Ta  hoe'. 

Ta  mal'pais(pice). 

Te  hach'a  pi. 

The  Hague  (hag). 

Thian  Shan  (te  an'shan). 

To  bolsk'. 

To'ki  o. 

Ton  quin(keen). 

Transvaal  (trans  val'). 

Trip'o  li. 

Tucson  (tii  s6n'). 

Tu  lar'e. 

Uruguay  (00  roo  gwi'). 

Val  la'ho. 

Val  pa  rai(ri)so. 

Ven  ez  ue'(we)la. 

Vera  Cruz  (va'ra  kroos). 

Vi  gn'na. 

Will  am'  ette. 

Wy  o'ming. 

Xingu  (shing'goo). 

Yang  tse  Ki  ang'. 

Yen  e  se'i(sa'e). 

Yer'ba  Bwa'na. 

Yo  ko  ha'ma. 

Yo  sSm'i  te. 

Yu  ca  tan'. 

Yvj'kon. 

Zam  be'zi. 

Zu'ni. 


I 


132 


AREAS  AND  POPULATIONS. 


AREAS  AND  POPULATIONS. 


Asia     .     .     . 

Sq.  Miles. 
16,428,954 

Population. 
662,613,553 

Africa .     .    . 

Sq.  Miles. 
11,000,000 

Population. 
268,000,000 

Europe .     . 

Sq.  Miles. 
•      3,807,115 

Population. 
359,941,636 

N.  America    . 

8,155,438 

79,375,532 

S.  America  . 

7,410,042 

31,753,932 

Oceania 

•      5,198,151 

42,315,347 

D.  of  Canada 

•    3,470,392 

4,324,810 

United  States 

.   3,605,000 

56,785,456 

Mexico 

751,157 

10,460,703 

What  three  Grand  Divisions  taken  together  nearly 
equal  Asia  in  extent?  What  two?  How  does  Asia  com- 
pare in  extent  with  the  Western  Continent?  What  two 
countries  of  North  America  are  nearly  equal  in  extent? 
How  many  times  larger  is  the  Dominion  of  Canada  than 


Mexico?  About  how  many  times  larger  is  the  popula- 
tion of  Mexico  than  that  of  Canada?  What  Grand 
Division  do  the  United  States,  Europe,  and  Africa, 
taken  together,  nearly  equal  in  population? 


POPULATION  OF  THE  LARGEST  CITIES  OF  DIFFERENT  COUNTRIES. 


NORTH  AMERICA. 

Canada. 
Montreal 140,000 

United  States. 
(Atlantic  Plain.) 

New  York 1,300,000 

Philadelphia 875,000 

Brooklyn 604,000 

Boston 390,000 

(Great  Central  Plain.) 

Chicago 950,000 

St.  Ivouis 450,000 

New  Orleans 235,000 

(Pacific  Coast.) 
San  Francisco 315,000 

Mexico. 
Mexico 242,000 

West  Indies. 
Havana 205,000 


SOUTH  AMERICA. 

Argentine  Confederation. 

Buenos  Ay  res      .     .     .     .     .     398,000 

Brazil. 
Rio  Janeiro 357,ooo 

EUROPE. 

Great  Britain. 
London 4,083,000 

France. 
Paris 2,344,000 

Germany. 
Berlin 1,315,000 

Austro-  H  ungary . 
Vienna    .......     1,103,000 

Russia. 
St.  Petersburg 929,000 


Turkey. 
Constantinople       ....     873,000 

Italy. 
Naples 463,000 

ASIA. 

China. 

Peking 1,600,000 1 

Canton 1,300,0001 

Japan. 
Tokio 1,288,000 

Hindostan. 
Calcutta 795,000 

AFRICA. 

Egypt. 
Cairo 327,000 

OCEANIA. 

Australia. 
Melbourne 283,000 


Name,  locate,  and  give  the  population  of  the  following  I   What  two  cities  of  Asia  have  each  nearly  the  same  popula- 


cities:  Largest  city  in  the  world.  In  North  America. 
In  South  America.  In  Asia.  In  Africa.  In  Australia. 
In  the  order  of  their  population,  give  the  name,  location, 
and  population  of  the  largest  six  cities  of  the  globe. 


tion  as  New  York?  What  city  of  Asia  is  nearest  in  popu- 
lation to  Philadelphia?  What  city  of  the  world  has  more 
than  4,000,000  of  people?  What  city  between  2,000,000  and 
4,000,000?    What  cities  between  1,000,000  and  2,000,000? 


(ufiversitt)) 


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